An Ecolinguistic Reading of the Creation Story in the Bible: Beyond and Within
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Literature Review
The biblical texts are to be read in their context, with an appropriate hermeneutic, recognizing that they tell us to “till and keep” the garden of the world (cf. Gen 2: 15). “Tilling” refers to cultivating, ploughing or working, while “keeping” means caring, protecting, overseeing and preserving. This implies a relationship of mutual responsibility between human beings and nature. Each community can take from the bounty of the earth whatever it needs for subsistence, but it also has the duty to protect the earth and to ensure its fruitfulness for coming generations.
2. Theoretical Framework
3. Materials and Method
- What kind of interaction occurs between human beings, God and the earth before and after the man and the woman have eaten the forbidden fruit?
- What does the forbidden fruit stand for and why does eating it cast such a gloomy shadow on humankind?
- How do the stories of creation in Genesis relate to the current environmental problems and how can they be perceived: beneficial, destructive or ambivalent?
4. Analysis and Findings
4.1. The Stories of Creation
(1) In the beginning, when God created the heavens and the earth, the earth was a formless wasteland, and darkness covered the abyss, while a mighty wind swept over the waters. Then God said, “Let there be light”, and there was light. God saw how good the light was. God then separated the light from the darkness. God called the light ‘day’, and the darkness he called ‘night’. Thus evening came, and morning followed—the first day.(Genesis 1: 1–5).
- Day 1: light;
- Day 2: the sky;
- Day 3: the sea, vegetation;
- Day 4: the stars and “the two great lights to govern the day and the night”;
- Day 5: sea monsters, swimming creatures, winged birds;
- Day 6: wild animals, cattle, creeping things, the man and the woman.
- Day 7: God’s rest.
(2) Then God said, “Let the water teem with an abundance of living creatures, and on the earth let birds fly beneath the dome of the sky”. And so it happened: God created the great sea monsters and all kinds of swimming creatures with which the water teems, and all kinds of winged birds. God saw how good it was, and God blessed them, saying, “Be fertile, multiply, and fill the water of the seas; and let the birds multiply on the earth”.(Genesis 1: 20–22)
(3) God made all kinds of wild animals, all kinds of cattle, and all kinds of creeping things of the earth. God saw how good it was. Then God said: “Let us make man in our image, after our likeness. Let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, the birds of the air, and the cattle, and over all the wild animals and all the creatures that crawl on the ground”. God created man in his image; in the divine image he created him; male and female he created them. God blessed them, saying: “Be fertile and multiply; fill the earth and subdue it. Have dominion over the fish of the sea, the birds of the air, and all the living things that move on the earth”.(Genesis 1: 25–28)
(4) The LORD God formed man out of the clay of the ground and blew into his nostrils the breath of life, and so man became a living being. Then the LORD God planted a garden in Eden, in the east, and he placed there the man whom he had formed. Out of the ground the LORD God made various trees grow that were delightful to look at and good for food, with the tree of life in the middle of the garden and the tree of the knowledge of good and bad.(Genesis 2: 7–9)
(5) The LORD God then built up into a woman the rib that he had taken from the man. When he brought her to the man, the man said: “This one, at last, is bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh; This one shall be called ‘woman’, for out of ‘her man’ this one has been taken”.
- Trees and animals are created after the man to give him companionship;
- The woman is created at the very end of creation from the man’s rib to be “his suitable partner”;
- The man rejoices verbally at the woman’s appearance as he recognizes her as his own kind;
- There is no mention of the creation of light, the sky, the luminaries;
- The geography of the land inhabited by humans, the Garden of Eden, is precise and realistic with some well-known toponyms such as tigris and euphrates, the two rivers crossing Eden.
4.2. The Story of the Forbidden Fruit
(6) Now the serpent was the most cunning of all the animals that the LORD God had made. The serpent asked the woman, “Did God really tell you not to eat from any of the trees in the garden?”
The woman answered the serpent: “We may eat of the fruit of the trees in the garden; it is only about the fruit of the tree in the middle of the garden that God said, ‘You shall not eat it or even touch it, lest you die’.
But the serpent said to the woman: “You certainly will not die! No, God knows well that the moment you eat of it your eyes will be opened and you will be like gods who know what is good and what is bad”. The woman saw that the tree was good for food, pleasing to the eyes, and desirable for gaining wisdom. So she took some of its fruit and ate it; and she also gave some to her husband, who was with her, and he ate it.
Then the eyes of both of them were opened, and they realized that they were naked; so they sewed fig leaves together and made loincloths for themselves.(Genesis 3: 1–7)
(7) For the man and his wife the LORD God made leather garments, with which he clothed them. Then the LORD God said: “See! The man has become like one of us, knowing what is good and what is bad! Therefore, he must not be allowed to put out his hand to take fruit from the tree of life also, and thus eat of it and live forever”.(Genesis 3: 22–23)
- God cares for the man and the woman even after they have betrayed his trust;
- The knowledge of good and bad which has made man become like god does not manifest itself as superior power or greater discernment; rather, it entails self- and mutual distrust;
- When human beings become like god, they lose their many privileges (harmony, self-content, immortality) and gain instead a burden of pain and toil.
(8) “I will intensify the pangs of your childbearing; in pain shall you bring forth children. Yet your urge shall be for your husband, and he shall be your master.” To the man he said: “Because you listened to your wife and ate from the tree of which I had forbidden you to eat, “Cursed be the ground because of you! In toil shall you eat its yield all the days of your life. Thorns and thistles shall it bring forth to you, as you eat of the plants of the field. By the sweat of your face shall you get bread to eat, until you return to the ground, from which you were taken; For you are dirt, and to dirt you shall return”.(Genesis 3: 16–19)
4.3. A View of Nature in the Bible
(9) Then God said, “Let the earth bring forth all kinds of living creatures: cattle, creeping things, and wild animals of all kinds”.(Genesis 1: 24)
(10) Hallelujah! Praise the LORD from the heavens; give praise in the heights./Praise him, all you angels; give praise, all you hosts./Praise him, sun and moon; give praise, all shining stars./Praise him, highest heavens, you waters above the heavens./Let them all praise the LORD’S name; for the LORD commanded and they were created,/Assigned them duties forever, gave them tasks that will never change./Praise the LORD from the earth, you sea monsters and all deep waters;/You lightning and hail, snow and clouds, storm winds that fulfill his command;/You mountains and all hills, fruit trees and all cedars;/You animals wild and tame, you creatures that crawl and fly;/You kings of the earth and all peoples, princes and all who govern on earth;/Young men and women too, old and young alike.(Psalm 148: 1–13)
(11) “Do people pick grapes from thornbushes, or figs from thistles? Just so, every good tree bears good fruit, and a rotten tree bears bad fruit. A good tree cannot bear bad fruit, nor can a rotten tree bear good fruit.”(Matthew 7: 16–18)
5. Discussion
- The tree of knowledge, at the center of the beautiful Garden of Eden and next to the tree of life, has a dominant position in man’s dwelling place and life;
- Knowledge is forbidden to men and women;
- By gaining knowledge, men and women will also know their death;
- Men and women do not delight in their newly acquired knowledge;
- Knowledge brings them a feeling of shame, fear and mutual distrust even before God’s condemnation.
(12) By wisdom is a house built, by understanding is it made firm;
And by knowledge are its rooms filled with every precious and pleasing possession.
A wise man is more powerful than a strong man, and a man of knowledge than a man of might;
For it is by wise guidance that you wage your war, and the victory is due to a wealth of counselors.(Proverbs 24: 3–6)
I often tell my theology students that Genesis 1 and 2 are among the best pro-animal texts we could ever imagine there being. Nonhuman animals and humans are created on the same day of creation. Both share the breath of life. God commands humans to eat plants. Animals are brought to Adam, not to kill and eat, but “because it is not good man should be alone”.
6. Concluding Remarks
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
1 | Both organizations involve scholars and professionals across countries and fields of expertise: the International Society for the Study of Religion, Nature and Culture adopts diverse approaches including sustainability, indigenous traditions, applied social sciences, ethics, religious studies, political science and anthropology (https://www.issrnc.org/about/, accessed on 15 May 2023); the Earth Bible Project aims to interpret the Bible from the perspective of the earth and in light of ecojustice principles (https://www.webofcreation.org/Earthbible/earthbible.html, accessed on 15 May 2023). |
2 | Some key quotations on the sacredness of nature according to the world religions are showcased on the United Nations Environment Programme web page at https://www.unep.org/about-un-environment-programme/faith-earth-initiative/religions-and-environmental-protection (accessed on 29 May 2023). |
3 | It is worth noting that the Holy Bible (2015), available at https://biblehub.com/, adopts two different verbs, “govern” and “reign”, which suggest guardianship rather than exploitation: “Fill the earth and govern it. Reign over the fish in the sea, the birds in the sky, and all the animals that scurry along the ground”. (accessed on 22 June 2023). |
4 | See (Harrison 1999, p. 88): “A number of biblical scholars have patiently tried to explain that when we examine such Hebrew terms as ‘have dominion’ and ‘subdue’, we find that they do not really mean ‘have dominion’ and ‘subdue’. James Barr, for example, informs us that the verb rada—‘have dominion’—is not a particularly strong expression and was used to refer to Solomon’s peaceful rule; kabash, “subdue”, refers simply to ‘the ‘working’ or ‘tilling’ of the ground in the J story’. Lloyd Steffen follows suit, pointing out that while it is true that one of the meanings of the word ‘dominion’ (rada) is ‘to tread down’, what the term denotes in the Genesis context is ‘the ideal of just and peaceful governance’. Dominion, he concludes, ‘is not a domination concept’”. A similar argumentation is put forward by Hiebert (2019, p. 267) when he argues that the superior status of human beings conferred on them by their being created in God’s image is precisely the reason why their rule is respectful rather than exploitative: “Humans’ primary biblical vocation is to be responsible for the world as God would be. The translation ‘take charge’ in CEB [Common English Bible] further emphasizes this representative nature of human rule”. (see also Ravasi 2021, p. 37). |
5 | See (Holloway 2016) for a deeply insightful, thought-provoking and refreshingly humorous account of world religions. |
6 | It is worth bearing in mind that “The Bible is not a catechism, a book of systematic theology, or a manual of religion, despite the fact that at a much later time, very complex systems of theology would be spun from particular interpretations of biblical passages. There is nothing in the Bible that corresponds to prevailing modern western notions of religion; indeed, there is no word for religion in the language of biblical Hebrew” (Hayes 2012, p. 24). |
7 | See (Wierzbicka 2001, 2019) for an insightful deconstruction of the vocabulary of Christianity and its culturally loaded words/concepts. |
8 | The first lines in the original Hebrew text have given rise to contrasting interpretations, some of which question the creatio ex nihilo and argue that heaven and earth were already there or had been created by God before the actual start of the origin story (see van Wolde 2009, 2016). |
9 | In his critique of traditional biblical translations in English, Theodore Hiebert (2019, p. 265) observes the following: “Biblical writers were seriously interested in the natural world, as seriously interested as contemporary scientists are. This real interest in the world has been obscured because biblical thought has been connected primarily with a spiritual rather than a material realm, or with a historical religion rather than a nature religion”. See also (Armstrong 1996, p. 16): “For the biblical writers, the natural world was not inert and dead. It shared God’s own potency, teemed with life, and had its own integrity”. |
10 | See one of the meanings for sky in the Oxford English Dictionary 2023: “4. Heaven, the celestial abode of God or gods; (also) heavenly power or powers”. |
11 | The closeness between man and God is reinforced by the words used, each pointing to a different and complementary aspect: “image” refers to the inner being, while “likeness” suggests a physical similarity. Commenting on the meaning of the Hebrew word tselem (“image”), which indicates a relationship of analogy and “makes present something that is absent”, Ellen van Wolde (1997, pp. 27–29) observes that every human being acts as a pointer to God and makes God present in the world. |
12 | Contrasting interpretations of this second creation story have been put forward: according to some, the Genesis 1 scene is here illuminated and described in greater detail (see Collins 2006; van Wolde 1997), while, according to others, they are two different accounts (Armstrong 1996; Hiebert 2022). |
13 | It may be interesting to note how the differences in translation, i.e., “leather garments” in The New American Bible as opposed to “animal skins” in The New Living Translation, frame this story in different ways more or less aligned with an ecotheological reading: while the phrase “leather garments” emphasize the clothing, “animal skins” suggest the death of the animals, usually provoked by humans according to the farming system adopted in ancient Jewish society. Given the scarcity of details and the atemporal setting of the origin story, it is possible to regard the leather garments as supplied by living animals. Cf. (van Wolde 1997, p. 52): “The [..] animals ensure that the human being gets clothing which warms and protects him and her as they till the earth […]. In this sense one can say that God makes the animals as a help for the transition from a life in the garden to a life outside the garden”. |
14 | See (Hayes 2017, p. 71): “the Garden of Eden story in Genesis 2–3 makes it clear that humans traded immortality for free will”. |
15 | See Marlow and Harris (2022, pp. 3–5) on how the use of the word ‘nature’, absent in Hebrew, can convey a Western worldview as “ancient authors explained natural phenomena in terms of God’s actions in the world”, rather than according to scientific laws. |
16 | See (Walker-Jones 2019, p. 278): “In the context of the book as a whole, all creation is in relationship with God and praises God. Psalm 148.10 calls on “the living being (החַַיּהָ) and every domestic beast, creeping beings and winged birds” to praise God”. |
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Pennarola, C. An Ecolinguistic Reading of the Creation Story in the Bible: Beyond and Within. Religions 2024, 15, 263. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15030263
Pennarola C. An Ecolinguistic Reading of the Creation Story in the Bible: Beyond and Within. Religions. 2024; 15(3):263. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15030263
Chicago/Turabian StylePennarola, Cristina. 2024. "An Ecolinguistic Reading of the Creation Story in the Bible: Beyond and Within" Religions 15, no. 3: 263. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15030263