The Hangzhou Region and the Spread of East Asian Buddhism

1. In Search of East Asian Buddhism1

The story of East Asian Buddhism is a complex tapestry woven through centuries of cultural exchange, religious development, and scholarly interpretations. However, it has often been narrated through a lens that emphasizes Indian origins and later transformations, neglecting the rich and intricate manifestations of Buddhism in East Asia, particularly in the Hangzhou region. While European interest in Buddhism initially fixated on Indian roots, East Asian Buddhism remained underexplored, viewed through a lens colored by European preconceptions. Even Japan, with its long Buddhist history, initially embraced the European model, relegating Chinese Buddhism to a subordinate role in the narrative. Chinese Buddhism, despite being a crucible of East Asian Buddhist developments, became overshadowed by these narratives.

The prevalent approach to understanding East Asian Buddhism often began, until recently, with India, dwelling extensively on the life of Buddha and the early developments, framed by retrospective accounts written centuries after the alleged events. This approach overlooks the regional nuances, social dimensions, and indigenous transformations that characterized Buddhism’s evolution in East Asia. The lens of European perceptions, shaped by Protestant paradigms, led to an idealized image of a “pure” Buddhism rooted in the historical teachings of Śākyamuni Buddha. This bias disregarded local variations and the organic growth of Buddhism in East Asian societies. The encounter between Europe and Asia during the Age of Discovery propelled a fascination with non-European religions, including Buddhism. Yet, this encounter was marred by Eurocentric interpretations, relegating the study of Buddhism in East Asia to the margins.

In the late 19th century, Sir Edwin Arnold’s “The Light of Asia” and Max Müller’s translations propelled Buddhism into Western consciousness. However, these narratives were influenced by European ideals and often portrayed a romanticized, distorted image of Buddhism, overshadowing its true regional flavors. The Protestant lens further influenced the study of Buddhism, emphasizing textual analysis over lived practices, leading to an artificial dichotomy between an idealized, pure Buddhism and its contemporary, perceived deviations. This skewed perspective ignored the dynamic nature of Buddhist evolution in East Asia.

The transformative figure of D.T. Suzuki challenged the Indo-centric view but inadvertently shifted the focus to a Japan-centric interpretation, downplaying the significance of Chinese Chan Buddhism. Suzuki’s interpretation of Zen as the pinnacle of spirituality, divorced from its historical context, further marginalized the richness of Chinese Chan Buddhism. Despite Suzuki’s breakthrough, the true historical developments and significant post-Tang era contributions of Chan Buddhism in East Asia remained underrepresented, sidelined in favor of narratives serving other agendas.

The Hangzhou region, a vibrant hub of cultural exchange and intellectual fervor, played a pivotal role in the evolution and spread of East Asian Buddhism. However, these regional contributions often become obscured by overarching narratives fixated on Indian origins and later Japanese interpretations. Reimagining the narrative of East Asian Buddhism necessitates a departure from Eurocentric and Indo-centric biases, acknowledging the diverse and intricate manifestations across East Asia, with due recognition of the significant contributions of the Hangzhou region to the tapestry of East Asian Buddhist heritage.

2. Beyond Dunhuang

The significance of Dunhuang in shaping our comprehension of Buddhism cannot be overstated. The unearthing of manuscripts from the concealed library cave has revolutionized our understanding of “Silk Road Buddhism” and profoundly impacted the realm of workshops, symposia, courses, and conferences, fundamentally altering the contours of scholarly discourse. However, while Dunhuang’s contributions to our perception of the early and possible “middle” period of Chan have been unprecedented, this treasure trove has, in some ways, diverted our focus from the subsequent evolution of Chan that unfolded from the ninth century onwards—a crucial narrative of Chan, Sŏn, and Zen, metamorphosing into a truly East Asian phenomenon resonating through to contemporary times.

While Dunhuang’s revelations significantly enhanced our grasp of early Chan history, it inadvertently overlooked later developments that shaped the tradition. This oversight is cautioned against by Chinese Buddhist scholar Lv Cheng 吕澂 (Lv 1979), advocating for a balanced perspective that recognizes Dunhuang’s scope and relevance while not overestimating its overall impact (中國佛學源流略講 1979). Specifically in Chan and Zen studies, Lu emphasizes that Dunhuang’s findings constitute only a part of the comprehensive panorama and cannot wholly encapsulate the entire spectrum of Chan’s evolution.

An illuminating example of Dunhuang’s dual effect on Chan studies is exemplified by Phillip Yampolsky’s work on the Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch 六祖壇經. Yampolsky’s publication, alongside Hu Shih’s writings on Shenhui 神會, intrigued the English-speaking audience, unraveling the intricacies beyond the transformative phase in Chan history and the emergence of the “Southern School”. Yet, while the Dunhuang versions of the Platform Sutra significantly contributed to our understanding of early Chan, they were not the received versions in China. The expanded “mature version” compiled during the Song and Yuan dynasties represented the mainstream text for Chinese and East Asian readers, challenging the presumed seminal status of the Platform Sutra in later Buddhist sources. This discrepancy illustrates how Dunhuang’s influence has sometimes misled scholars, leading to misconceptions in interpreting later traditions.

The unintended consequences of Dunhuang’s impact have skewed our comprehension of the Chan tradition, diverting attention from critical later developments in the Song and Ming dynasties. By doing so, it has eclipsed the significance of these developments in shaping Chan within China and their broader influence across East Asia. In acknowledging Dunhuang’s invaluable contributions to Chan studies, it becomes imperative to adopt a balanced approach that not only appreciates its insights into early Chan but also recognizes the limitations in representing the entirety of Chan’s evolutionary trajectory. A holistic perspective encompassing both Dunhuang’s revelations and the subsequent developments is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of Chan Buddhism’s historical narrative.

3. The Flourishing of Wuyue: A Legacy in Buddhism

Amidst the waning authority of the Tang dynasty, the southern domain of Wuyue 吳越 emerged as a quasi-independent, politically stable, and economically robust principality centered in the regional hub of Qiantang, later established as the capital Hangzhou during the Southern Song era. Like other southern-based regimes of the late Tang and Five Dynasties periods—such as Southern Tang 南唐, Min 閩, and Southern Han 南漢—Wuyue was intricately woven with aspirations to revive the glories of the Tang dynasty, entwined with a rejuvenation of Tang Buddhist culture as the bedrock for societal and cultural renaissance.

The establishment of an autonomous Wuyue was orchestrated by Qian Liu 錢鏐 (King Wusu 武肅王, r. 893–932), hailed posthumously as Taizu, the Great Ancestor, an acknowledgment of the regime’s grand ambitions. Initially aligned with Daoism under Luo Yin’s 羅隱 influence, Qian Liu pivoted towards Buddhism as the cornerstone of his reign, overseeing the construction of numerous monasteries across the region. These monasteries sheltered monks from various factions, including representatives of both Northern and Southern Chan.

Mount Tiantai 天台山, birthplace of the Tiantai School initiated by Zhiyi 智顗 (538–597), regained its prominence in the Wuyue region. After the death of Zhiyi and his disciple Guanding 灌頂 (561–632), Tiantai was absorbed into the Buddhism of the capital, Chang’an, and lost its independent status and vitality. It was revived for a time in the eighth century by the sixth patriarch of the school, Zhanran 湛然 (711–782), but fell into decline after his death. Through the backing of Wuyue rulers, the Tiantai School experienced a revival, culminating in the advocacy of Tiantai Deshao 天台德紹 (891–972), a personal advisor to Qian Chu. Deshao’s eminence led to favored treatment for his students, including Zanning 贊寧 (919–1001) and Yongming Yanshou 永明延壽 (904–975), who played pivotal roles in Wuyue’s Buddhist landscape. Yanshou was particularly influential, redefining Chan principles and melding them with broader Buddhist traditions, thus imparting a distinctive character to Wuyue Chan.

The Wuyue regime sought to revive Tang’s glory with Buddhism as its cornerstone, economically and politically anchoring itself as the most robust, culturally, among southern states. This fervent support for Buddhism, moreover, stemmed from conservative forces yearning to resurrect its former magnificence. While Wuyue Buddhism primarily embraced Chan masters and institutions, it aimed to weave these within the fabric of Buddhist scholastic traditions. Yanshou’s Chan teachings reflected a broader spectrum of practices within Chinese Mahayana Buddhism, and diverged from the later dominance of Linji faction teachings which advocated a separation from Buddhist traditions. His writings, emphasizing myriad good deeds 萬善, mirrored Wuyue’s universalist Buddhist policy.

Qian Chu’s regime emblematically mirrored Aśoka’s pro-Buddhist campaign, engendering a construction program that aimed to embed Buddhism in the Wuyue landscape. Notable endeavors included the reconstruction of Mount Tiantai and numerous monasteries, and the erection of Aśoka-inspired pagodas across the realm. Qian Chu’s preface to Yanshou’s Zongjing lu 宗鏡錄 (Records of the Source-Mirror) unequivocally accentuated Buddhism’s preeminent position in Wuyue.

Wuyue’s imprint on Song Buddhism endured, evidenced by seminal works from that period. These contributions spanned across teaching, meditation, and vinaya, leaving an indelible mark on post-Tang Buddhism. In essence, Wuyue’s legacy in Buddhism not only echoed the grandeur of Tang’s cultural zenith but also redefined Chan principles, solidifying its identity within the broader Buddhist tradition. This era’s intellectual and cultural production played a foundational role in shaping the subsequent trajectory of Buddhism in China.

In previous work, I outline the paradigmatic changes in East Asian Buddhism stemming from three important figures and texts initiated by masters from the Hangzhou region: Yanshou and the Zongjing lu, Daoyuan 道源 and the Jingde Chuandeng lu 景德傳燈錄 (Jingde era Record of the Transmission of the Lamp), and Zanning and the Seng shulüe 僧史略 (Topical Compendium of the Buddhist Clergy) (Welter 2022). To highlight their significance, I chart these against the three pillars of classical Buddhism’s noble eightfold path: śila, samādhi, and prajñā.

4. Yongming Yanshou: Chan Zong as the Culmination of Mahayana Buddhist Wisdom

Yongming Yanshou emerged as a prominent figure in the articulation of post-Tang Buddhist thought. His work, the Zongjing lu, represents a distinct understanding of Chan truth embodied in the term zong 宗. Departing from the conventional lineage transmission interpretation of zong in many Chan factions, Yanshou perceives it as an underlying truth permeating Chinese Mahayana Buddhism. He redefines zong to imply that Chan’s principles and teachings harmonize with the entirety of the Buddhist tradition, tracing back to Śākyamuni’s teachings. Yanshou asserts that the Buddha, over forty-nine years of teaching, did not add anything new to the Dharma preached by past, present, and future buddhas. This universal truth, accessible through the “gate of universal mind”, accommodates diverse paths for practitioners of varying abilities.

Despite varied teachings, Yanshou observes a fundamental unity among them. He pairs well-known scriptures, schools, and masters with their designated teachings, illustrating how the Lotus Sūtra embodies the “one-vehicle” teaching, how Prajñā scriptures emphasize “non-duality”, and so forth. He categorizes teachings into explicit and implicit explanations, with implicit teachings based on unique characteristics called zong. Yanshou identifies implicit truths in various scriptures: Vimalakīrti Sūtra with “miraculousness”, Diamond Sūtra with “non-abiding”, Huayan Sūtra with “dharma-realm”, and Nirvāṇa Sūtra with “Buddha-nature”. These teachings, though diverse, represent different facets of the “universal mind”, establishing a thousand pathways towards truth. The concept of the “universal mind” serves as an overarching principle, unifying diverse teachings. Yanshou transcends sectarian boundaries, considering Confucianism and Daoism as partial representations of truth implicit in the principle of the universal mind. He explores the “deep structure” of the mind, resolving apparent contradictions in Buddhist teachings. Yanshou elucidates the mind’s role as the essence of myriad good deeds, the source of wisdom, and the ruler of existence and spiritual beings. The mind, varying in application, underpins the diversity in teachings and the nature of existence itself.

In responding to the vast Buddhist canon, Yanshou crafted an abridged version seeking to encapsulate the entire corpus into a manageable size, epitomizing a response characterizing post-Tang Buddhism. Yanshou’s conception of Chan teachings, with zong revealing the implicit truth through the universal mind, represents a new frame for understanding the role of Buddhist teachings in attaining wisdom, augmenting the classical prajñā pillar of Buddhism.

5. Transitioning from Chan Meditation Practice to Chan Lineage Transmission

The evolution of Buddhism from the Tang to the Song dynasty marked a pivotal shift in Chan Buddhism, steering away from traditional meditation practices towards the propagation of Buddha’s enlightenment experience through lineage transmission. This transformation from the fundamental concept of chan (dhyāna) to the Chan school rooted in lineage transmission commenced during the Tang era but flourished prominently in the Song period. The consolidation and imperial endorsement of the Jingde chuandeng lu highlighted the newfound importance of this once-peripheral movement.

Daoyuan, an esteemed Fayan lineage monk from Wuyue, is celebrated as the compiler of the Jingde chuandeng lu, despite scant records preserving details of his life. Delving into the significance of his compilation demands a glimpse into the Jingde chuandeng lu itself. This text stood as a hallmark for the Chan movement, deviating from prior regional Chan transmission records that bore distinct regional characteristics. The Jingde chuandeng lu emerged as a response to changing circumstances, rooted in the revival of Buddhism in Wuyue under the Chan banner. The pivotal narrative of this work lies in how the Wuyue-based Chan movement integrated into the broader Song aims and policies regarding Chan, notably within the debate of the Song court over Chan orthodoxy.

The metamorphosis of Daoyuan’s compilation unfolded under the tutelage of Yang Yi 楊億 (974–1020), a prominent literatus at the Song court. Yang Yi’s editing and revision of Daoyuan’s work from its original title, Fozu tongcan ji 佛祖同參集 (Collection on the Common Practice of the Buddhas and Patriarchs) to the revised Jingde chuandeng lu (Jingde era Record of the Transmission of the Lamp), signified a significant reinterpretation. Daoyuan envisioned Chan as a harmonious part of the Buddhist tradition, reflecting the legacy of the Wuyue-based Fayan faction, in line with Zongmi’s interpretation of Chan. However, Yang Yi’s reimagination aligned more with the Linji faction Chan interpretation, emphasizing Chan exclusivity and deviating from Wuyue’s pluralistic approach.

Yang Yi’s fascination with Chan mirrored his advocacy for a unique Song civilization style, diverging from the established Tang conventions. His portrayal of Chan as “a separate practice outside the teaching” (jiaowai biexing教外別行) in the Chuandeng lu encapsulated this endeavor for distinctiveness. This divergence led to the establishment of Chan as “a special transmission outside the scriptures” (jiaowai biechuan 教外別傳), departing from conventional Buddhist approaches and replacing traditional scriptures with yulu 語錄 dialogue records of Chan masters.

This paradigm shift redefined Chan Buddhism, emphasizing the experience of living Chinese masters and mind-to-mind transmission over traditional meditation practices. While sitting meditation persisted in Chan monasteries, it was complemented by the emulation of Chan masters depicted in transmission records, dialogue records, and gong’an 公案 practice under the guidance of authorized Chan masters. The reformulation of Chan, championed by Daoyuan and reinterpreted by Yang Yi, underscored a monumental departure from tradition, embracing a Chan culture deeply rooted in lineage transmission and a unique Chinese experience of enlightenment.

6. Zanning: Architect of a Secularized Buddhist Administrative Model

Zanning stands as a pivotal figure bridging the transition between Wuyue and Song, an era where Buddhism underwent a transformation in its relationship with secular governance. Born and bred in Wuyue, Zanning ascended to a prominent position in the Buddhist kingdom, later becoming the Buddhist Controller (sengtong 僧統) under King Qian Chu. His journey to the Song capital resulted in his induction into the service of Emperor Taizong due to his erudition.

Zanning’s extant works, such as the Song Gaoseng Zhuan 宋高僧傳and Da Song Seng Shilüe 大宋僧史略, offer profound insights into his approach to Buddhism’s administration. He focused on ensuring Buddhism’s enduring presence, emphasizing the role of the Buddhist clergy and the administrative structures supporting it. He approached Buddhist monasteries not as isolated institutions but as integrated entities within the Chinese bureaucratic framework. The term si 寺, which denotes both “court” and “monastery”, exemplified this integration. Zanning stressed that this governmental association did not diminish the spiritual activities inside the monastery but, in fact, preserved its Buddhist essence.

Zanning advocated a dual system of administration—external oversight merged with internal monastic management. He justified imperial involvement in appointing sangha officials, emphasizing the benefits of such control for both the emperor and Buddhism. Through offices like “Buddhist Rector” and “Buddhist Registrar”, he harmonized Buddhist governance with Chinese bureaucratic norms, ensuring conformity and efficacy within the administrative structure.

However, this secularization of Buddhism faced challenges, particularly from the virulent Confucian guwen faction. Despite opposition, Zanning’s influence continued among Buddhist circles, advocating for Buddhism’s compatibility with Confucian governance. Figures like Zhiyuan 智圓 (976–1022) and Qisong 契嵩 (1007–1072) echoed Zanning’s thoughts, aiming to unite Buddhist principles with Confucian governance ideals.

Zanning’s legacy lay in envisioning an administrative model that integrated Buddhism into the state apparatus while retaining its essence. His ideas formed the basis for the Chanyuan qinggui qinggui 禪苑清規 (Rules for Purification at Chan Monasteries) stipulated, illustrating the secularized aspect of Buddhist administrative protocols in Song society. Zanning’s approach heralded a redefined role for the clergy, transforming the traditional śila pillar of Buddhism into a secularized, integrated, and influential force within Chinese culture and governance.

7. In the Footsteps of Eisai: The Evolution of East Asian Buddhism

The evolution of Chan Buddhism in the Northern and Southern Song dynasties marked a transformative phase, shaping the landscape of Buddhism across China, particularly in the Hangzhou region, which emerged as a prominent Buddhist hub during the Southern Song era. The pilgrimage of Japanese Buddhist monks to the Hangzhou region, notably initiated by Myōan Eisai 明菴栄西 (or Yõsai, 1141–1215), delineated a crucial juncture in the interplay between Chinese and Japanese Buddhism. Eisai’s initial voyages to Mt. Tiantai in 1168 and later visits to the region in 1187 served as pivotal episodes. Initially seeking means of revitalizing Tendai teaching in Japan amidst the Buddhist decline, Eisai was surprised to discover the transformation of Mt. Tiantai’s monasteries into Chan institutions. The Hangzhou region became a repository of palpable connections to India’s Buddhist heritage. Monasteries like Lingyin si 靈隱寺, Tianzhu 天竺 monasteries, and Ayuwang si 阿育王寺, with alleged relics of Śākyamuni Buddha, enriched the Buddhist landscape, embodying the fusion of Indian influences within Chinese Buddhism.

Eisai’s return to Japan catalyzed the establishment of Zen, challenging the Tendai status quo. He founded Zen institutions like Shōfuku-ji 聖福寺, Kennin ji 建仁寺, and Jūfuku ji 壽福寺, laying the groundwork for Zen’s propagation in Japan. Subsequent monks like Ryōnen Myōzen 了然明全 (1184–1225) and Dōgen 道元 (1200–1253) followed Eisai’s path, journeying to Hangzhou’s famed monasteries and ultimately establishing influential lineages in Japan. This pilgrimage became a transformative stream with many notable monks like Enni Ben’en 圓爾辯圓 (1202–1280), who established Tōfuku ji 東福寺, and Lanxi Daolong 蘭溪道隆 (J. Rankei Dōryū, 1213–1278) and Wu’an Puning 兀庵普寧 (J. Gottan Funei, 1197–1276), who played vital roles in Kamakura’s Engaku ji 円覚寺 and Kenchō ji 建長寺, respectively. Concurrently, Chinese Chan masters made their way to Japan, contributing significantly to Zen monastic practices.

The Five Mountains system in Southern Song China, epitomized by monasteries like Tiantong si 天童寺, Jingshan si 徑山寺, Lingyin si, and Jingci si 淨慈寺, functioned as pivotal centers for Chan study, attracting numerous Japanese pilgrims. Japan’s adaptation of this system, mainly through the Gozan 五山 system, further heightened the prestige of Zen temples, especially during the Kamakura Shogunate period. The Kamakura Shogunate’s support for the Zen network of temples solidified Zen Buddhism’s prominence in Japan, paralleling the Chinese Five Mountains system. The establishment of Kenchō-ji and Jōraku-ji 常樂寺 underscored the Shogunate’s commitment to foster Zen Buddhism in Japan, reflected in figures like Yishan Yining 一山一寧 (J. Issan Ichinei, 1247–1317), instrumental in the dissemination of Chan-style institutions.

The convergence of Chinese and Japanese Chan Buddhism, marked by pilgrimages, the transmission of teachings, and institutional models, reshaped East Asian Buddhism. The Hangzhou region, with its vibrant monastic culture and ties to Indian Buddhist heritage, served as a catalyst in this transformative phase, leaving an indelible mark on the evolution of Buddhism in both China and Japan.

8. The Resonance of Chan Influence in Korean Sŏn Buddhism

The footprint of Chan Buddhism in Korea dates back to the Silla period (668–935), with the emergence of the “nine mountain schools”, predominantly descending from Mazu Daoyi 馬祖島一. This rich heritage set the stage for Korean Sŏn Buddhism, attaining its distinct character during the Koryŏ period (918–1392), notably under the tutelage of Chinul 知訥 (1158–1210), a pivotal Sŏn master.

Chinul, often considered the epitome of influential Korean Sŏn masters, advocated the unity of Sŏn meditation and doctrinal teachings, drawing parallels with Chinese Chan luminaries like Zongmi and Yanshou. Central to Chinul’s teachings was the resolution of the “gradual” versus “sudden” enlightenment debate, synthesizing “sudden enlightenment” followed by “gradual cultivation”. His unique approach amalgamated gong’an meditational practices with Hwaeom teachings, emphasizing scriptural study alongside gong’an techniques. Chinul’s personal enlightenment, stemming from scriptural contemplation rather than direct transmission, left an indelible mark, profoundly influencing subsequent Korean Sŏn masters.

Chin’gak Hyesim 真覺慧諶 (1178–1234), Chinul’s successor, further emphasized critical phrase (hwadu) practice, as did succeeding Sŏn luminaries like Hyegŭn 慧勤 (1320–1376), T’aego Po’u 太古普愚 (1301–1382), Kihwa 己和 (1376–1433), and Hujŏng 休靜 (1520–1604). This lineage’s influence extended into Korean society and government, establishing Sŏn Buddhism as a dominant religious force during the Koryŏ period. Interactions between Korean monks and their Chinese counterparts were pivotal in nurturing these developments. Notable figures like T’aego Po’u traveled to China to study under Chan masters like Shiwu Qinhong 石屋清洪 (1272–1352), initiating the orthodox Linji Sŏn tradition in Korean Buddhism.

The direct connection between Korean Sŏn and Hangzhou was notably established by Tamjin 曇真 (d.u.), who, accompanying a Koryŏ embassy to China, imbibed the developments in Song China’s Chan monasteries. Learning crucial aspects such as the Chan mythology of mind-to-mind transmission and important rituals, Tamjin’s return to Korea heralded an era where Korean Sŏn monks creatively borrowed elements from Song-style public monasteries, enhancing their legitimacy and competitive edge. Tamjin’s lineage set the tone for the adaptation of Chan elements into Korean Sŏn Buddhism, with Sŏn monks creatively integrating these teachings and practices, securing their standing, and contributing to the dynamic evolution of Korean Buddhism.

The resonance of Chan influence in Korean Sŏn Buddhism, through the assimilation and adaptation of Chinese Chan teachings, rituals, and institutional models, stands as a testament to the enduring interplay and exchange between these two vibrant Buddhist traditions.

9. Unveiling Hangzhou’s Crucial Role in East Asian Buddhism

Robert Buswell aptly highlights the typical narrative of Buddhism’s eastward diffusion originating from India and reaching the far corners of East Asia (Buswell 2005). Yet, this linear narrative often eclipses the nuanced countercurrents, wherein influences circulate back to the center, revealing a more complex dissemination. It is within this context that repositioning the study of Chan, Sŏn, and Zen Buddhism with a concentrated focus on China, particularly the Hangzhou region, becomes paramount.

While the study of Buddhism has predominantly centered on India due to its historical significance as Buddhism’s birthplace, this perspective inadequately represents the evolution of Buddhism over 2500 years. For the past millennium, India ceased being a primary source of active Buddhist inspiration, especially in China, where Buddhism underwent unique indigenous transformations, shaping an authentic form of East Asian Buddhism. Hangzhou, as a former capital during the Song dynasty, emerged as a pivotal center for these transformative developments.

Despite its profound impact on Chinese culture and Buddhism, Hangzhou’s significance remains relatively obscure beyond China and the East Asian context. While Dunhuang’s artifacts have captivated scholars, Hangzhou’s pivotal role often takes a back seat in Buddhist studies. Notably, Hangzhou, known as Qiantang in the tenth century, held sway as the capital of Wuyue and later became the capital of the Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279) under the name Lin’an. It was from this dynamic region that novel Buddhist forms disseminated across East Asia, notably influencing Japan and Korea. Therefore, discussions surrounding East Asian Buddhism essentially encompass myriad Buddhist forms originating in Hangzhou, which were subsequently adopted, adapted, and integrated into various regions and periods.

Foremost among these is Chan Buddhism, recognized as Zen in Japan and Sŏn in Korea, whose evolution from the tenth century onwards owes much to the rich Buddhist landscape of the Hangzhou region. The practices, philosophies, and cultural influence of Chan Buddhism found fertile ground in this vibrant hub, extending their reach and impact throughout East Asia.

In essence, repositioning the narrative of East Asian Buddhist studies entails acknowledging Hangzhou’s pivotal role in shaping and propagating distinct forms of Buddhism. Exploring Hangzhou’s profound contributions enriches our understanding of the multifaceted evolution of Chan, Sŏn, and Zen Buddhism, thereby illuminating the interwoven tapestry of East Asian religious heritage.