Examining the Names of the Eight Bodhisattvas and the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra in the Guanding Version of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Sutra

Abstract

By examining the variants in the Dunhuang manuscripts and carving versions of the Guanding version of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Sutra (Guanding Bachuguozui Shengsidedu Jing, 灌頂拔除過罪生死得度經, Chapter 12 of Sutra on Abhiṣeka (Guanding Jing 灌頂經), we can categorize it into five different editions based on the names of the eight bodhisattvas and the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra: (1) without the names of the eight bodhisattvas and the mantra, (2) with the names from the earlier translation, but without the mantra, (3) with the names from the later translation, but without the mantra, (4) with the names from the earlier translation and with the mantra, and (5) with the names from the later translation and with the mantra. These editions reflect the diachronic evolution of the Guanding version of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Sutra. The names of the eight bodhisattvas in the earlier translation first appeared in The Eight Lucky Mystical Mantra Sutra (Bajixiang Shenzhou Jing, 八吉祥神咒經), translated by Zhiqian (支謙, dates unknown) during the Three Kingdoms period. These bodhisattvas were atypical, including laymen and heavenly kings, rather than conventional enlightened figures. In contrast, the names from the later translation include well-known figures such as Avalokitesvara and Maitreya, selected by the compilers of the Guanding version. Notably, there is no direct connection between the earlier and later translations of the eight bodhisattvas’ names. Regarding the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra, the Guanding version is the earliest known version, which has undergone three expansions. The names of the Buddha, including tathāgatāya (多他伽多耶), bhagavate (薄伽筏帝), arhate (阿囉𠿒帝), and saṃyaksaṃbuddhāya (三藐三勃陀也), were subsequently added to the final edition by Yijing (義浄, 635–713).

1. Introduction

In many Chinese Han Buddhist temples, the main hall enshrines three Buddha statues: the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha of the Eastern Pure Land of Vaidurya, Śākyamuni Buddha of the Sahā World, and Amitābha Buddha of the Western Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss. The Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha is revered for eliminating disasters and prolonging life, while Amitābha Buddha is known for guiding the dying to the Sukhāvatī. These teachings reflect the two core principles taught by Śākyamuni Buddha, the master of the Sahā World, aimed at saving all sentient beings and addressing the fundamental issues of life and death. The Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Sutra is a central and influential scripture in Buddhism, with four extant translations found in the Taishō Tripiṭaka:

• T13311, Sutra on Abhiṣeka for Removing Sins and Attaining Deliverance from Birth and Death (Guanding Bachuguozui Shengsidedu Jing (灌頂拔除過罪生死得度經), chapter 12 of Sutra on Abhiṣeka (Guanding Jing 灌頂經), translated by Śrīmitra (帛尸梨蜜多羅, ?–335~342) of the Eastern Jin Dynasty (the Taisho Guanding version, the title of the Song, Yuan and Ming editions contain the additional terms “Zhangju” (章句).
• T0449, Sutra on the Original Vows of Bhaiṣajyaguru Tathāgata (Yaoshirulai Benyuan Jing 藥師如來本願經), translated by Dharmagupta (達摩笈多, ?–619) of the Sui Dynasty (the Dharmagupta version).
• T0450, Sutra on the Original Vows and Merits of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Vaiḍūryaprabha Tathāgata (Yaoshi Liuliguang Rulai Benyuan Gongde Jing, 藥師琉璃光如來本願功德經), translated by Xuanzang (玄奘, 602–664) of the Tang Dynasty (the Xuanzang version).
• T0451, Sutra on the Vows and Merits of the Seven Bhaiṣajyaguru Vaiḍūryaprabha Buddhas (Yaoshi Liuliguang Qifo Benyuan Gongde Jing 藥師琉璃光七佛本願功德經), translated by Yijing (義浄, 635–713) of the Tang Dynasty (the Yijing version).

Existing research on the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Sutra offers a diverse range of perspectives and has produced increasingly fruitful results.2 However, the classification of the Guanding version of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Sutra does not accurately reflect its true characteristics, and the evolution of its mantra has received insufficient attention. This paper reclassifies the Guanding version based on the names of the eight bodhisattvas and the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra. It examines and compares the variants in the Dunhuang manuscripts and carving versions3 and investigates the replacement of the names of the eight bodhisattvas and the evolution of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra within the Guanding version.

2. The Names of the Eight Bodhisattvas and the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra in the Four Carving Versions of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Sutra 

F0088, Guanding Zhangju Bachuguozui Shengsidedu Jing (灌頂章句拔除過罪生死得度經) in the Fangshan Stone Tripitaka (Fangshan Shijing, 房山石經), abbreviated as the Fangshan Guanding version, includes the additional term “Zhangju” (章句) in its title compared to the Taisho Guanding version. It aligns with the Song, Yuan, and Ming editions in this regard. At the conclusion of the sutra, it references The Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Sutra (Yaoshi Jing, 藥師經), noted as one fascicle, without specifying the translator. While the Fangshan Guanding version and the Taisho Guanding version share the same translation, two significant differences distinguish them:

• The Fangshan Guanding version does not specify the names of the eight bodhisattvas, whereas the Taisho Guanding version enumerates them: 文殊師利菩薩 Wenshushili Pusa, 觀世音菩薩 Guanshiyin Pusa, 得大勢4菩薩 Dedashi Pusa, 無盡意菩薩 Wujinyi Pusa, 寶檀華菩薩 Baotanhua Pusa, 藥王菩薩 Yaowang Pusa, 藥上菩薩 Yaoshang Pusa, 彌勒菩薩 Mile Pusa.5
• The Fangshan Guanding version does not include the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra, while the Taisho Guanding version provides the mantra: 南謨鼻殺遮 Nanmobishazhe, 俱嚧吠瑠璃耶 julufeiliuliye, 鉢波 bobo, 喝邏社耶 heluosheye, 哆姪他 duozhita, 鼻殺遮 bishazhe, 鼻殺遮 bishazhe, 娑婆揭帝 suopojiedi, 薩婆訶 sapohe.6

The Guanding Bachuguozui Shengsidedu Jing (灌頂拔除過罪生死得度經), which corresponds to Chapter 12 of the Sutra on Abhiṣeka (Guanding Jing, 灌頂經) in the Zhaocheng Jin Tripitaka (Zhaocheng Guanding version, 趙城金藏), is largely consistent with the Taisho Guanding version, with the notable exception of variations in the characters utilized in the mantra, where “殺 sha” is rendered as “煞 sha”.

The Dharmagupta version and the Xuanzang version lack both the specific names of the eight bodhisattvas and the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra. In contrast, the Yijing version does not contain the names of the eight bodhisattvas but includes the mantra 南謨薄伽伐帝 Nanmoboqiefadi, 鞞殺社 bishashe, 寠嚕薜琉璃 julubiliuli, 鉢喇婆 bolapo, 曷囉闍也 heluosheye, 呾他揭多也 datajieduoye, 阿囉𠿒帝 aluohedi, 三藐三勃陀也 sanmiaosanbotuoye, 呾侄他 dazhita, 唵 an, 鞞殺逝 bishashi, 鞞殺逝 bishashi, 鞞殺社 bishashe, 三沒揭帝 sanmojiedi, 莎訶 shahe. This mantra in the Yijing version represents an expanded form of the one found in the Taisho Guanding version and is widely recited in contemporary Buddhist rituals in modern temples.

The following list presents the names of the eight bodhisattvas and the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra as found in each carving version of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Sutra (see

Table 1. Names of Eight Bodhisattvas and Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra in Carving Versions of Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Sutra.

Version	Names of the Eight Bodhisattvas	Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra
Fangshan Guanding version, Dharmagupta version, Xuanzang version	None	None
Zhaocheng Guanding version, Taisho Guanding version	Yes (later translation7)	Brief
Yijing version	None	Detailed

):

Our comparative analysis yields several key inferences: the names of the eight bodhisattvas and the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra were absent from the original Guanding version, and the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra in the Guanding version predates that found in the Yijing version. This raises important questions about the existence of only two forms of the Guanding version: the Taisho Guanding version and the Fangshan Guanding version. It is crucial to ascertain whether the Fangshan Guanding version directly influenced the Taisho Guanding version or if there were intermediate forms that contributed to its evolution. A thorough examination of the Dunhuang manuscripts may provide valuable insights to clarify these inquiries.

3. The Names of the Eight Bodhisattvas and the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra in the Dunhuang Manuscripts of the Guanding Version of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Sutra

By exploring the Digital Resource Library of Chinese Manuscript Documents,8 one can identify two distinct sets of names for the eight bodhisattvas within the Dunhuang manuscripts corresponding to the Guanding version: (1) The names of the eight bodhisattvas in the following manuscripts represent a later translation that aligns with the Taisho Guanding version: BD5452, BD2232, BD2909, BD0848, BD0317, BD6690, BD1495, BD3143, BD2130, BD2656, BD8607, BD4220, P.2928, BD0032, BD5843, BD4505, BD3619, and BD0033. (2) The names of the eight bodhisattvas in the following manuscripts represent an earlier translation: S.1968, BD6674, BD0602, BD4407, S.0162, and S.3903. The names are as follows: 拔陁和 Batuohe/陁和 Batuohe, 羅鄰那竭 Luolinnajie/羅憐那竭 Luolinnajie/羅鄰那 Luolinna, 矯越覺 Jiaoyuejue/憍目兜 Jiaomudou, 那羅 Naluo/那羅達 Naluoda, 須量彌 Xuliangmi/須深彌 Xushenmi, 摩訶薩和 Mahesahe/摩訶薩伽 Mohesaqie/摩訶伽 Moheqie, 因秖達 Yinzhida/用坘達 Yongzhida/勇仾達 Yongdida/同秖達 Tongzhida, and 和倫 Helun/和瑜論 Heyulun/合倫輪 Helunlun9. The transliteration of the names results in variations in the syllables of the transliterated names across different manuscripts. Additionally, homophones and variant characters contribute to these discrepancies. Furthermore, inconsistencies in the writing of the names of the eight bodhisattvas can be attributed to errors, omissions, and other factors, leading to a lack of uniformity among the manuscripts.

Shiga Takayoshi categorized the Dunhuang manuscripts of the Guanding version into two groups: those containing the mantra and those lacking it (see Shiga 1963, pp. 176–77). Similarly, Li Yumin and Ning Qiang classified the manuscripts into two categories: one group featuring the transliterated names of the eight bodhisattvas without the mantra, and the other consisting of the translated names of the eight bodhisattvas alongside the mantra (see Lee 1990, pp. 1–40; Ning 1998, pp. 75–98). Wu Xiaozhe identified an additional category: manuscripts that do not include either the names of the bodhisattvas or the mantra.10 It is important to note that the term “translated” is not entirely accurate; in this context, names such as “Wenshushili” and “Mile” are actually transliterations. Therefore, I have revised the terminology from “transliterated” and “translated” to “earlier translation” and “later translation”.

Based on my investigation, the existing classifications do not accurately represent the true characteristics of the Dunhuang manuscripts of the Guanding version of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Sutra. A significant number of these manuscripts are incomplete. After excluding those that lack the sections containing the names of the eight bodhisattvas and the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra, I identified a total of 15 relatively complete manuscripts that provide information on both the eight bodhisattvas and the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra. Utilizing the names of the eight bodhisattvas and the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra as classification criteria, the Guanding version can be divided into the following five categories (see

Table 2. Names of the Eight Bodhisattvas and Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra in Dunhuang Manuscripts of the Guanding Version of Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Sutra.

	Dunhuang Manuscript Number	Names of the Eight Bodhisattvas	Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra
1	S.6800, S.2515	None	None
2	S.3903, S.0162, BD3407	Earlier translation	None
3	BD4407	Earlier translation	Yes
4	BD0032, BD2232, BD3619, BD0848, BD2909, BD3143, BD0317, BD0033	Later translation	None
5	S.2494	Later translation	Yes

):

It is evident that associating the absence of the mantra with the names of the eight bodhisattvas in the earlier translation, as well as linking the presence of the mantra with the names of the eight bodhisattvas in the later translation, does not accurately reflect the true characteristics of the Dunhuang manuscripts of the Guanding version. In reality, there are three forms that lack the mantra: 1. Manuscripts without the names of the eight bodhisattvas, 2. Manuscripts containing the names of the eight bodhisattvas in the earlier translation, and 3. Manuscripts featuring the names of the eight bodhisattvas in the later translation. Conversely, there are two forms that include the mantra: 1. Manuscripts with the names of the eight bodhisattvas in the earlier translation and 2. Manuscripts with the names of the eight bodhisattvas in the later translation. In total, there are five forms represented in the Dunhuang manuscripts of the Guanding version, with categories three and four being newly identified. The various forms of transmission suggest that the names of the eight bodhisattvas and the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra were introduced by different copiers at distinct times throughout the processes of transmission and engraving. However, questions arise regarding whether the names of the eight bodhisattvas in the earlier and later translations were borrowed from other scriptures by the copiers or if they were selected and combined independently by the copiers themselves. Furthermore, what is the status of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra in this context? The following sections will address these questions in detail.

4. The Names of the Eight Bodhisattvas in the Earlier Translation

Given that existing research has overlooked the period of prevalence and the identities associated with the names of the eight bodhisattvas in the earlier translation, the following sections will examine these two aspects in detail.

4.1. Period of Prevalence of the Names of the Eight Bodhisattvas in the Earlier Translation: From the Three Kingdoms to the Liao Dynasty (221–1125)

The names of the eight bodhisattvas in the earlier translation first appeared in T0417, the Pratyutpannabuddhasaṃmukhâvasthitasamādhisūtra (Banzhou Sanmei Jing, 般舟三昧經), which is a one-fascicle scripture attributed to Lokakṣema (支婁迦讖, dates unknown) during the Later Han Dynasty (25–220). Additionally, these names are present in T0418, a three-fascicle version of the same sutra, also attributed to Lokakṣema. Furthermore, T0427, titled Bajixiang Shenzhou Jing (八吉祥神咒經), translated by Zhiqian (支謙, dates unknown) during the Three Kingdoms period (220–280), also contains these names. Later, the names of the eight bodhisattvas appeared in T0428, Bayang Shenzhou Jing (八陽神呪經), and T0222, Mohe Bore Boluomi Guangzan Pin (摩訶般若波羅蜜光讚品), which is the first chapter of the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā–prajñāpāramitā (Guangzan Jing, 光讚經), translated by Dharmarakṣa (竺法護, 229–306) during the Western Jin Dynasty (266–317). They are also found in T1331, Guanding Baijie Shenwang Hushenzhou Jing (灌頂百結神王護身呪經), and Guanding Moniluodan Dashenzhou Jing (灌頂摩尼羅亶大神呪經), which are chapters four and eight of the Sutra on Abhiṣeka (Guanding Jing, 灌頂經), attributed to Śrīmitra (帛尸梨蜜多羅, ?–343) of the Eastern Jin Dynasty (317–420). Additionally, T0409, Guan Xukongzang Pusa Jing (觀虛空藏菩薩經), is attributed to Dharmamitra (曇摩蜜多, 356–442) in the Liu Song Dynasty (420–479). T1487, Pusa Neijjie Jing (菩薩內戒經), is attributed to Gunabharman (求那跋摩, 367–431) in the Liu Song Dynasty(420–479), as well. T0441, Foming jing (佛名經), was translated during the Northern and Southern Dynasties (420–589). T2897, Tiandi Bayang Shenzhou Jing (天地八陽神呪經), was pseudo-attributed to Yijing (義浄, 635–713) in the Tang Dynasty (600–800). Furthermore, X0638, chapter four of the Fahuajing Xuanzan Yaoji (法華經玄贊要集), was compiled by Qifu (栖復, dates unknown) in the Tang Dynasty (618–907), and F1072, Yiqie Fopusa Mingji (一切佛菩薩名集) from the Fangshan Shijing, was compiled by Deyun (德雲, dates unknown) in the Liao Dynasty (916–1125).

Wang Weihui and Fang Yixin, through textual research and linguistic analysis, both argued that the one-fascicle version of the Pratyutpannabuddhasaṃmukhâvasthitasamādhi–sūtra could not have been translated by Lokakṣema during the Later Han Dynasty, but rather represents a translation from the Western Jin Dynastyor a later period. Fang Yixin further posited that the three-fascicle version of the same sutra also appears to be a translation from the Western Jin Dynasty or later (see Wang 2007, pp. 303–19; Fang and Gao 2012, pp. 173–200). Consequently, the names of the eight bodhisattvas in the earlier translation first emerged in T0427, Bajixiang Shenzhou Jing (八吉祥神咒經), translated by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period. Since the Guanding version of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Sutra initially did not include the specific names of the eight bodhisattvas, these earlier names were likely added during the transcription process. The aforementioned Buddhist scriptures, spanning the Three Kingdoms to the Liu Song Dynasty, could all serve as potential sources for these names.

The names of the eight bodhisattvas in the earlier translation ceased to circulate as a cohesive collection after the Liao Dynasty, indicating that their period of circulation extended from the Three Kingdoms to the Liao Dynasty. Consequently, the timeframe during which the copiers of the Guanding version transcribed these names spans from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Liao Dynasty. According to chapter five of the Compilation of Notes on the Translation of the Tripiṭaka (Chu Sanzang Jiji, 出三藏記集) by Sengyou (僧祐, 445–518) of the Liang Dynasty (502–557), Huijian (慧簡, 407–458) compiled the Guanding version in the first year of the Daming era under Emperor Xiaowu of the Liu Song Dynasty (457). It is plausible that the names of the eight bodhisattvas in the earlier translation were incorporated into the Guanding version during this compilation process.

4.2. The Referents of the Names of the Eight Bodhisattvas in the Earlier Translation: Laymen, Devas, Great Arahants, or Sons of the Great Wealthy Householders

It is noteworthy that the identities of three of the names of the eight bodhisattvas in the earlier translation remain unknown. Furthermore, five of these bodhisattvas do not correspond to the typical enlightened figures who have renounced worldly life as depicted in other Buddhist scriptures.

• “拔陁和 Batuohe”, written as “颰陀婆羅 Batuopoluo” in the Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa (Dazhidu Lun, 大智度論), is identified as a lay bodhisattva.
• “羅鄰那竭 Luolinnajie” appears in the Vimalakīrti–Nirdeśa–Sūtra (Weimojie Jing, 維摩詰經), translated by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, and is recognized as the son of a great wealthy householder.
• “那羅達 Naluoda” is classified as a Brahmin in the Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa. In T0200, chapter five of the Zhuanji Baiyuan Jing (撰集百緣經),11 also translated by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, this name appears as “那羅達多 Naluodaduo” and is identified as a bhikkhu. Similarly, in T0099, the Za Ahan Jing (雜阿含經), translated by Guṇabhadra (求那跋陀羅, 394–468) during the Liu Song Dynasty, it is also referred to as a bhikkhu.
• “須深彌 Xushenmi” is identified as a deva in T0419, the Bapi Pusa Jing (拔陂菩薩經). In T0342, the first chapter of the Ruhuan Sanmei Jing (如幻三昧經), translated by Dharmarakṣa during the Western Jin Dynasty, is also identified as a deva. Furthermore, in T0398, the Zhupusa Suosheng Zhuangyandahui Fadianpin (諸菩薩所生莊嚴大會法典品), which is the first chapter of the Da’ai Jing (大哀經), also translated by Dharmarakṣa during the Western Jin Dynasty, “須深彌” is referred to as a deva king.
• “因秖達Yinzhida” appears in T2128, chapter nine of the Yiqiejing Yinyi (一切經音義) by Huilin (慧琳, 737–820) during the Tang Dynasty, where it is written as “因坻 Yinchi/因提 Yinti/因陀羅 Yintuoluo”. This term refers to the Emperor, the deva king, or Śakra Devānām-Indra. Additionally, in K1257, the first chapter of the Xinji Zangjing Yinyi Suihanlu (新集藏經音義隨函錄) by Kehong (可洪, dates unknown) from the Later Jin (Five Dynasties), it is recorded as “因坘 Yinzhi/因提 Yinti”, which similarly refers to the deva king or Śakra Devānām–Indra.

The names of the bodhisattvas in the earlier translation of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Sutra within the Guanding version correspond to laymen, sons of the great wealthy householders, bhikkhus, and deva kings in other Buddhist scriptures, indicating that their statuses are not highly esteemed. Consequently, these names were replaced by those of the eight bodhisattvas in the later translation. This replacement elucidates the lack of correspondence between the names of the eight bodhisattvas in the earlier and later translations, highlighting that their referents and meanings differ significantly.

5. The Names of the Eight Bodhisattvas in the Later Translation

The names of the eight bodhisattvas in the later translation are found in the following Dunhuang manuscripts of the Guanding version: BD5452, BD2232, BD2909, BD0848, BD0317, BD6690, BD1495, BD3143, BD2130, BD2656, BD8607A, BD4220, P.2928, BD0032, BD5843, BD4505, BD3619, and BD0033.12 The referents of the eight bodhisattvas in each manuscript are the same, and the order is consistent. Among them, there are differences in the syllables and characters of the translation of Mahāsthāmaprāpta Bodhisattva, including writing forms such as “德大勢旨/德大勢至/德大勢志/得大勢至 Dedashizhi/大勢至 Dashizhi/得大勢 Dedashi”. There are also variations in the characters used for the translation of Ratnaprabha Bodhisattva, with written forms such as “寶檀華Baotanhua/寶擅華 Baoshanhua/寶壇華 Baotanhua”. With the exception of Ratnaprabha Bodhisattva, all the other seven bodhisattvas in the later translation are common bodhisattvas who have renounced worldly life and attained enlightenment, and their referents differ from those found in the earlier translation.

Except for Ratnaprabha Bodhisattva, the individual names of the seven bodhisattvas in the later translation had already appeared during the Three Kingdoms period. The question arises: when did the combination of the eight bodhisattvas in the later translation first appear in the Guanding version?

An examination of the Taisho Tripitaka reveals various combinations of the names of the eight bodhisattvas in the later translation. Notably, only one instance aligns with the Guanding version, found in T1963, the Treatise on the Pure Land (Jingtu lun, 淨土論) by Jiacai (迦才, dates unknown) from the Tang Dynasty. This text copies the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Sutra of the Guanding version, stating

聞我說是琉璃光佛本願功德，盡其壽命，欲終之日，有八菩薩，（其名曰：）文殊師利菩薩，觀世音菩薩，大勢至菩薩，寶檀華菩薩，無盡意菩薩，藥王菩薩，藥尚菩薩，彌勒菩薩，（如是八菩薩摩訶薩）皆當飛往迎其精神，不逕八難，生蓮華中，自然音樂而相娛樂。 Wen wo shuo shi liuliguangfo benyuan gongde, jin qi shouming, yu zhong zhi ri, you ba pusa, (qi ming yue:) Wenshushili Pusa, Guanshiyin Pusa, Dashizhi Pusa, Baotanhua Pusa, Wujiinyi Pusa, Yaowang Pusa, Yaoshang Pusa, Mile Pusa, (rushi ba pusamohesa) jie dang fei wang ying qi jingshen, bu jing ba nan, sheng lianhua zhong, ziran yinyue er xiang yule.13

Compared to the Guanding version in the Taisho Tripitaka, this excerpt lacks the connecting content in parentheses. Additionally, the order of the eight bodhisattvas differs, with Ratnaprabha Bodhisattva appearing before Akṣayamati Bodhisattva. Furthermore, “得大勢 Dedashi” is rendered as “大勢至 Dashizhi”, and “藥上 Yaoshang” is written as “藥尚 Yaoshang”.

The composition date of Jiacai’s Treatise on the Pure Land is unknown, but the latest recorded date within the text is “July 20th, the 22nd year of Zhenguan”, which corresponds to AD 648. This suggests that Jiacai’s copying of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Sutra occurred after the 22nd year of Zhenguan. For context, the Dharmagupta version was completed in AD 616, the Xuanzang version in AD 650, the Yijing version in AD 707, and the Fangshan Guanding version in AD 722. Notably, none of these versions of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Sutra include the names of the eight bodhisattvas in the later translation. This highlights the unique presence of these names in the Guanding version and indicates that their incorporation into the text occurred before Jiacai’s time. According to the investigation conducted by the Digital Resource Library of Chinese Manuscript Documents, during the manuscript era, the Xuanzang version was the most prevalent, followed by the Guanding version, while the Dharmagupta version was not widely disseminated. When Jiacai composed the Treatise on the Pure Land, it is possible that he had not encountered the Dharmagupta version, and the Xuanzang version and the Yijing version may not yet have been translated. Therefore, the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Sutra referenced in the Treatise on the Pure Land is likely the Guanding version rather than the Dharmagupta or Xuanzang version. This suggests that Jiacai’s copying of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Sutra occurred prior to the translation of the Xuanzang version in AD 650. Consequently, this indicates that there was a Guanding version containing the names of the eight bodhisattvas in the later translation that existed no later than the period between AD 648 and 650.

The names of the eight bodhisattvas in the earlier translation first appeared in other scriptures and were subsequently copied and incorporated into the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Sutra of the Guanding version by its copiers. In contrast, the names of the eight bodhisattvas in the later translation first emerged in the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Sutra of the Guanding version, with the Treatise on the Pure Land serving as a copy of this version. Therefore, it can be concluded that the names of the eight bodhisattvas in the later translation were selected and combined by the copiers of the Guanding version themselves.

6. The Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra

Both the Guanding version and the Yijing version include the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra, also known as the Mantra of Abhiṣeka of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha. Wu Xiaozhe has noted that the number of words in the mantra of the Guanding version is fewer than that in the Yijing version (see Wu 2010a). However, he did not identify that this mantra also appears in several other Buddhist scriptures, including T0922, Yaoshi Liuliguangrulai Xiaozaichunan Niansongyigui (藥師瑠璃光如來消災除難念誦儀軌) by Yixing (一行, 683–727) from the Tang Dynasty, and T0924A and T0924B (including the collated version 乙), Yaoshi Rulai Niansongyigui (藥師如來念誦儀軌) by Amoghavajra (不空, 705–774) from the Tang Dynasty. Wu Xiaozhe also identified five manuscripts in the Dunhuang manuscripts containing the mantra from the Guanding version: S.5014, S.6947, BD4510, BD7876, and BD8167. In my search of the Digital Resource Library of Chinese Manuscript Documents, I found a total of six manuscripts that contain relatively complete versions of the mantra: S.6947, BD4510, BD7876, BD8167, S.2494, and BD4407. The first four align with those identified by Wu, while the last two are newly discovered. Notably, the S.5014 manuscript cited by Wu only has a single page in the aforementioned database and does not contain the mantra.

To facilitate observation and comparison, the mantras of the same version found in the Dunhuang manuscripts, the Zhaocheng Jin Tripitaka, and the Taisho Tripitaka have been collected and categorized into four editions: A, B, C, and D. The edition with the fewest words is designated as the initial version A, which is further divided into 11 segments. The sorting rules are as follows: 1. Each segment is numbered sequentially using Arabic numerals and matched with the corresponding Sanskrit transliteration. 2. Repetitions of the above segments found in different manuscripts are considered variants of the same edition and are numbered with Roman numerals. 3. The addition of new segments constitutes an upgraded edition; for example, if the A edition adds a new segment, it becomes the B edition and is numbered with lowercase letters. 4. Corresponding segments are listed in the same row, and any missing words due to manuscript damage are replaced with “?” while missing words are indicated in parentheses. 5. To save space, “唵an” is not listed independently but is combined with the following segment in the same row.

The mantras of each edition are listed in the order of increasing number of words, arranged from the lowest to the highest edition as follows (see

Table 3. Edition A of Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra.

(A) Edition A: Variant Repeat of Segment I.
	S.6947	BD7876	BD8167	BD4510	Zhaocheng Jin Tripitaka	T1331	Sanskrit Transliteration
1		南無	南無	南無	南謨	南謨	namo
2	？？闍	毗舍闍	毗舍闍	毗沙闍	鼻煞遮	鼻殺遮	bhaiṣajya
3	瞿留	劬留	瞿	瞿留	俱嚧	俱嚧	guru
4	毗留	毗瑠璃	毗留離邪	毗留離耶	吠琉璃耶	吠瑠璃耶	vaiḍūrya
5	缽頗	缽頗	般頗	般頗	鉢波	鉢波	prabha
6	阿羅闍耶		阿羅闍那	阿羅闍耶	喝邏社耶	喝邏社耶	rājāya
7	哆恒他	多侄陁	多𭊾他	多絰他	哆姪他	哆姪他	tadyathā
8	毗舍？	毗舍是	毗舍是	毗舍是	鼻煞遮	鼻殺遮	bhaiṣajye
I				毗舍是			bhaiṣajye
9	毗舍闍	毗舍闍	毗舍闍	毗舍闍	鼻煞遮	鼻殺遮	bhaiṣajya
10	娑婆羯諦	娑摩竭帝	娑摩竭帝	娑摩竭帝	娑婆揭帝	娑婆揭帝	samudgate
11	唵 莎婆？	娑婆呵	娑婆呵	娑婆呵	薩婆訶	薩婆訶	oṃ svāhā

):

The mantra is not merely a collection of meaningless syllables; it carries significant meaning. Taking the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra in the T1331 Guanding version as an example, the English translation is as follows (see

Table 4. Edition B of Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra.

(B) Edition B: Addition of Segment a.
	S.2494	BD4407	Sanskrit Transliteration
1	南謨	南無	namo
2	毗沙闍	毗沙闍	bhaiṣajya
3	構留	渠樓	guru
4	瑠璃耶	毗琉璃耶	vaiḍūrya
5	波？	般破	prabha
6	阿闍耶	阿羅闍耶	rājāya
a	怛他伽哆耶	多他伽多耶	tathāgatāya
7	怛地多	多侄他	tadyathā
8	毗沙闍	毗沙是	bhaiṣajye
I		毗沙是	bhaiṣajye
9	毗沙闍	毗沙闍	bhaiṣajya
10	三摩揭帝	沙摩竭帝	samudgate
11	（娑婆訶）	娑婆呵	svāhā

):

南謨 namodo homage, 鼻殺遮 bhaiṣajyamedicine, 俱嚧 guruteacher

吠瑠璃耶 vaiḍūryaberyl, 鉢波 prabhalight, 喝邏社耶 rājāyato the king

哆姪他 tadyathānamely, 鼻殺遮 bhaiṣajyemedicine, 鼻殺遮 bhaiṣajymedicine,

娑婆揭帝 samudgatetranscended, 薩婆訶 svāhā so be it.

As above, the content of segment a, added in Edition B (taking the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra in the BD4407 manuscript as an example), is as follows (see

Table 5. Edition C of Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra.

(C) Edition C: Addition of Segment b.
	T0924B	T0924A	Sanskrit Transliteration
1	南謨	南謨	namo
b	薄伽筏帝	薄伽筏帝	bhagavate
2	鞞殺社	鞞殺社	bhaiṣajya
3	寠嚕	窶嚕	guru
4	蔽瑠璃	蔽瑠璃	vaiḍūrya
5	缽唎婆	缽喇婆	prabha
6	喝囉闍耶	喝囉闍耶	rājāya
a	怛他揭多	怛他揭多	tathāgatā
7	怛侄他	怛侄他	tadyathā
8	唵 鞞殺逝	唵 鞞殺逝	oṃ bhaiṣajye
I		鞞殺逝	bhaiṣajye
9	鞞殺社	鞞殺社	bhaiṣajya
10	三沒揭帝	三沒揭帝	samudgate
11	婆婆呵	婆婆呵	svāhā

):

多他伽多耶 tathāgatāyato the Tathagata.

As above, the content of segment b, added in Edition C (taking the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra in the T0924A, Yaoshi rulai niansongyigui (藥師如來念誦儀軌) by Amoghavajra as an example), is as follows (see

Table 6. Edition D of Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra.

(D) Edition D: Addition of Segments c and d.
	T0924B-乙	T0451	T0922	Sanskrit Transliteration
1	南謨	南謨	曩謨	namo
b	薄伽筏帝	薄伽伐帝	婆誐嚩帝	bhagavate
2	鞞殺耶	鞞殺社	佩殺紫野	bhaiṣajya
3	寠嚕	寠嚕	虞嚕	guru
4	蔽瑠璃	薜琉璃	吠𠯆哩也	vaiḍūrya
5	缽唎婆	缽喇婆	缽羅婆	prabha
6	羯囉闍耶	曷囉闍也	囉惹野	rājāya
a	怛他揭多耶	呾他揭多也	怛他蘖哆野	tathāgatāya
c	阿羅歇帝	阿囉𠿒帝	囉喝帝	arhate
d	三藐三勃陀耶	三藐三勃陀也	三藐三沒馱野	saṃyaksaṃbuddhāya
7	怛侄他	呾侄他	怛儞也他	tadyathā
8	唵 鞞殺逝	唵 鞞殺逝	唵 佩殺爾曳	oṃ bhaiṣajye
I	鞞殺逝	鞞殺逝	佩殺爾曳	bhaiṣajye
9	鞞殺社	鞞殺逝	佩殺紫野	bhaiṣajya
10	沒哩揭帝	三沒揭帝	三麼弩蘖帝	samudgate
11	沙婆呵	莎訶	娑嚩賀	svāhā

):

薄伽筏帝 bhagavateto the world-honored one.

The content of segments c and d, added in Edition D (taking the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra in the T0451 Yijing version of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Sutra as an example), is as follows:

阿囉𠿒帝 arhateto the venerable one,

三藐三勃陀也 saṃyaksaṃbuddhāyato the fully enlightened one.

By comparing manuscripts S.6947, BD7876, and BD8167, it can be observed that “那” in BD8167 is likely an error for “耶”, and “瞿” is missing the character “留” afterward. Additionally, “婆婆呵” in T0924B, the Yaoshi rulai niansongyigui (藥師如來念誦儀軌), should correctly read as “娑婆呵”. The original Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Sutra of the Guanding version did not include the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra; rather, the copiers added an initial version of the mantra that was transcribed incorrectly. They rendered “毗舍是，毗舍闍” as “鼻殺遮，鼻殺遮”, neglecting the distinction between “是” (chéng zhǐ qiè) and “闍” (shì zhē qiè), which corresponds to the difference between the Sanskrit sounds “e” and “a”. Furthermore, the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra in the Guanding version is briefer than that found in the Yijing version from the Tang Dynasty, suggesting that it should have appeared earlier. Consequently, it can be concluded that the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra was incorporated into the Guanding version, at the latest, prior to the translation of the Yijing version in AD 707.

7. Conclusions

Through this investigation, the following inferences can be drawn:

First, the five classifications of the Dunhuang manuscripts of the Guanding version of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Sutra approximately reflect the evolutionary process of the text, which can be divided into two primary evolutionary paths, as illustrated in the diagram below (see Figure 1):

Second, the names of the eight bodhisattvas in the earlier translation first appeared in other scriptures and were subsequently copied and included in the Guanding version of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Sutra by its copiers. This inclusion likely occurred between the Eastern Jin Dynasty and the Liao Dynasty, possibly attributed to Huijian in AD 457. Notably, three of the names of the eight bodhisattvas in the earlier translation had unknown identities, and the other five did not correspond to typical enlightened bodhisattvas who had renounced worldly life. In contrast, the names of the eight bodhisattvas in the later translation are recognized as common enlightened bodhisattvas who have renounced worldly life. These names first emerged in the Guanding version of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Sutra and were specifically chosen and combined by the copiers themselves. The timeframe for their appearance is determined to be, at the latest, between AD 648 and 650. The transition from having no specific referents for the eight bodhisattvas to having identifiable ones reflects the needs of faith within the Buddhist community. Believers often seek specific objects of worship to focus their devotion. This shift from non-enlightened bodhisattvas to enlightened great bodhisattvas also aligns with the faith’s requirements. Great bodhisattvas, such as Avalokitesvara, Maitreya, and Manjusri, are characterized by their immeasurable wisdom, significant merits, and profound supernatural powers. These qualities provide believers with a sense of security and help address various life and survival needs from birth to death. This transformation ultimately enhances the spiritual experience and reinforces the faith of practitioners, allowing them to connect more deeply with their beliefs.

Third, the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra can be categorized into four editions, ordered from the fewest words to the most. Among these, the Yijing version is the most detailed, while the Guanding version is noted for its simplicity. The inclusion of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra in the Guanding version occurred, at the latest, prior to the translation of the Yijing version in AD 707. The three expansions of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra, which incorporate the four names of the Buddha—“tathāgatāya”, “bhagavate”, “arhate”, and “saṃyaksaṃbuddhāya”—reflect a deep need for faith among practitioners. By adding these names, believers aim to enhance the efficacy of the mantra, believing that this will facilitate the rapid realization and fulfillment of both worldly and transcendental wishes. The inclusion of specific names of the Eight Bodhisattvas during the transcription of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Sutra and the changes to these names are results of sinicization, while the expansion of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra reflects the desire of Buddhists to enhance its efficacy14.

Therefore, the names of the eight bodhisattvas and the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Mantra in the Guanding version of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Sutra exhibit an evolutionary process. This evolution reflects the sinicization of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha Sutra from one perspective. The adaptation of these elements demonstrates how the text was shaped by Chinese cultural and religious contexts, integrating local beliefs and practices into the Buddhist framework. As the names of the bodhisattvas became more specific and the mantra expanded, it catered to the spiritual needs of Chinese practitioners, enhancing their devotional practices and deepening their faith. This process of sinicization not only made the teachings more accessible but also aligned them with the broader cultural landscape of Chinese Buddhism.