1. Introduction
The Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) is home to several Indigenous Peoples, including the Igorot, Kalinga, and Ifugao (
Yogaswara 2004). These Indigenous Peoples have their unique cultural traditions and religious beliefs. The Cordilleran youth inherit these traditions and beliefs from their elders and incorporate them into their daily lives (
Camacho et al. 2016). Religious practices among Cordilleran youth include the sacrifice of animals, offerings to ancestral spirits, and the use of herbal medicines (
Celino 1990). Their religious beliefs also shape their attitudes toward environmental conservation, as they view nature as sacred and believe it should be protected and preserved (
Molino 2022).
Religiosity plays a vital role in the lives of Cordilleran youth. For them, religious beliefs are not just a set of practices but a way of life that permeates all aspects of their existence (
Camacho et al. 2016). Religious rituals and practices are integrated into daily life, including agricultural activities, social events, and community gatherings (
Celino 1990). One of the most essential aspects of Cordilleran religious beliefs is their relationship with the natural world. For Cordilleran youth, nature is not simply a resource to be exploited but a sacred entity that must be respected and protected (
Molino 2022). The Cordilleran people deeply respect the environment, and their religious beliefs play a crucial role in shaping their attitudes toward environmental conservation.
In addition to their traditional religious beliefs, Cordilleran youth are influenced by modern religious practices, particularly Christianity. Many Cordilleran youths have embraced Christianity but have also found ways to incorporate their Indigenous beliefs into their Christian practices (
Aguilar 2018). This has led to hybrid religious practices that blend Indigenous and Christian beliefs.
Overall, religiosity among Cordilleran youth is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that reflects the Cordillera region’s rich cultural and spiritual traditions. By understanding the role of religiosity in the lives of Cordilleran youth, we can gain insights into their cultural identity, values, beliefs, and attitudes toward the environment.
Religions may be defined as attitudes, beliefs, and practices about supernatural power (
Ember et al. 2019). It usually concerns the universe’s cause, nature, and purpose, mainly when considering the creation of a superhuman agency. It involves devotional and ritual observances and often contains a moral code governing the conduct of human affairs. Religions worldwide vary widely and are also formed by complex social and cultural customs and rituals addressing human needs for sacred and supernatural meaning (
Halafoff et al. 2020). As the pandemic spreads, issues of religious belief have become increasingly prevalent (
Sobol et al. 2022). Indigenous Peoples are no exception to this phenomenon. Although colonization and imperialism through policies, settlers, or missionaries might have significantly altered life for Indigenous Peoples worldwide, many Indigenous communities have hybridized religious beliefs and practices (
Chidester 2013;
Ogunbado 2012). Moreover, for many Indigenous Peoples, traditional ways of life and activities are often intermingled with religion and spirituality (
Ammerman 2016).
Religion is essential to Indigenous Peoples. One of the main elements of Indigenous religions is the level of interconnectedness between their land, plant, and animal world, metaphysical beings, supernatural forces, and rituals (
Armstrong 2006;
Kemmerer 2012).
Carroll (
2019) said interconnectedness runs through Indigenous Peoples’ ontology, epistemology, worldviews, and ethics. In contrast,
Fonda (
2011) stated that Indigenous cultures do not have a marked conceptual separation between sacred and secular. Their religious practices and spiritual beliefs are central to their identity and form the core of their life. For example,
Cox (
2007) cites the example of the
Inuit in Alaska, for whom religion corresponds to their traditional ways of relating to their land and the sea.
Sable and Francis (
2012) highlighted this interconnectedness by using the
Mi’kmaw religion, which considers language, myth, ritual, culture, and land as inseparable elements of the whole. Part of such a complex, continuously evolving system is the deep association of Indigenous with all aspects of the physical world. This also holds for the context of Latin America (
Zwetsch 2015) and other Indigenous Peoples.
Religion has been an integral part of the lives of Indigenous Peoples. It has played a vital role in shaping their culture, identity, and worldview. The relationship between religion and Indigenous Peoples is complex and multifaceted, involving the intersection of culture, tradition, and spirituality. Religion serves as a way of life for Indigenous Peoples, providing them with guidance, support, and a sense of community. Importantly, the religiosity among Indigenous Peoples is shaped by their unique history, environment, and cultural practices. Their religious traditions are often tied to the natural world as they view nature as a sacred entity interconnected with all living beings. Moreover, their religious beliefs are often oral, as they are passed down from generation to generation through storytelling and rituals (
Oruc 2022).
Given this phenomenon, this research article attempted to investigate and discuss the religiosity of the Cordilleran Indigenous Peoples in the Philippines concerning their Indigenous culture and Christian traditions. One finds that the coexistence of different Indigenous youth perspectives can be expressed in the engagement of their autochthonous culture and religious practices. The Christian tradition and the Indigenous culture correlate by focusing on the spiritual and religiosity of the Cordilleran people. An attitude of mutual respect and understanding between Christians and Indigenous Peoples can achieve inter-religiosity.
1.1. Cordilleran Indigenous Peoples in the Philippines
Indigenous Peoples in various parts of the world face challenges and threats to their identity, culture, and religion (
Harff and Gurr 2004). Some Indigenous groups even face exploitation, exclusion, abuse, discrimination, and injustice in their lands. By recognizing these prevailing struggles of the Indigenous Peoples, Pope Francis (
Holy See Press Office 2017) called for reconciling their right to existence and development with the protection of the particular characteristics of Indigenous Peoples.
In the Philippines, the Indigenous Peoples Right Act (IPRA), also known as the Republic Act 8371 of 1997 (
GOV.PH 1997), defined an Indigenous People/Indigenous cultural community (IP/ICC) as a “group of people or homogenous societies identified by self-ascription and ascription by others, who have continuously lived as an organized community on communally bounded and defined territory, and who have, under claims of ownership since time immemorial, occupied, possessed and utilized such habitats, sharing common bonds of language, customs, traditions, and other distinctive cultural traits, or who have, through resistance to political, social and cultural inroads of colonization, non-indigenous religions, and cultures, became historically differentiated from the majority of Filipinos”.
In the rugged Cordillera region of the northern Philippines, there is an Indigenous population of approximately 1.2 million people (
GOV.PH n.d.;
Philippine Statistics Authority 2022), which is the traditional domain of the
Igorot, or mountain people.
Igorot have many common characteristics and belong to six ethnolinguistic tribes: the
Ibaloy,
Kankana-ey,
Ifugao,
Kalinga,
Apayao/
Isneg, and the
Bontoc (
Tauli-Corpuz 2000). Cordillera region has the second largest concentration of Indigenous groups next to the island of Mindanao (
Simbulan 2016;
Verzola 2007). The geographic condition of the region earned them the collective name
Igorots from the Spanish word
Igorrotes, which means “of the hill or mountain” (
Scott 1977).
Igorots of the Cordillera are Indigenous People with a distinct culture that they pass on from generation to generation (
Molintas 2019). At a discussion on the Cordillera Image at the University of the Philippines campus in Baguio, a woman questioned the speaker’s use of the term ‘Cordillera’ as she preferred the term ‘Igorot’ (
Abad 2004). Following this incident, there seems to have been a misunderstanding regarding using the terms Igorot, often associated with stereotyping and ethnocentrism. In addition,
Scott (
1977) also observed that for some, the word Igorot carries the pejorative connotation of being
pagan and
uncivilized (p. 52), which in reality is untrue.
1.2. Inter-Religiosity among Cordilleran Indigenous Peoples
The Cordilleran region has a rich religious history, with Indigenous beliefs and practices coexisting with the introduction of Christianity by Spanish colonizers in the 16th century. This has resulted in a unique blend of traditional and Christian beliefs among the Cordilleran people
Peterson (
2010). In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the religiosity of Cordilleran youth, with studies suggesting that they have a strong sense of spiritual identity and a deep connection to their cultural heritage (
Del Castillo 2022b).
One study by
Peterson (
2010) explored the religious practices and beliefs of Cordilleran youth in Baguio City. The study found that while many of the youth were raised in Christian families and attended church regularly, they also participated in traditional Cordilleran rituals and practices, such as the cañao (a ritual feast), to connect with their cultural heritage. The study also found that the youth’s religious attitudes and behaviors were shaped by their understanding and interpretation of their cultural beliefs.
Another study conducted by
Milagrosa and Slangen (
2006) focused on the religious beliefs and practices of Cordilleran youth in the province of Benguet. The study found that the youth’s religiosity was influenced by their social and cultural context, particularly their relationships with family and community members. The study also found that the youth’s religious practices were often tied to their participation in community events and activities, such as festivals and rituals.
There have been theologies of religion and inter-religiosity that have been formulated in the past years.
Tran (
2018) pointed out the three-fold classification of the Christian attitude toward religious others, including those with autochthonous religions, such as Indigenous Peoples. These paradigms on religious diversity are summarized as follows: religious exclusivism, inclusivism, and religious pluralism (
Knitter 2002). Religious exclusivism approaches say that only one religion is true, and the other paths are false. While religious inclusivism shows that one religion is the way to salvation, other paths, however, can also lead to God but can be inferior or incomplete. Lastly, religious pluralism is an approach to religious diversity that points out that all religions are equal and can lead to God.
In the case of the Cordillerans, religious diversity can be traced back to the early missionaries that introduced Christianity to the Igorots of the Cordillera (
Taray 2008). Although many Igorots maintained their independence up until the 20th century, most consider themselves marginalized today (
Scott 1977;
Taray 2008).
Peterson (
2010) indicates that many Cordilleran Peoples are exoticized and consider themselves less civilized due to maintaining Indigenous rituals. As
Howell (
2009) noted, many Cordilleran Peoples continue to practice their autochthonous rituals while simultaneously professing the Christian faith. For a Cordilleran to be a Christian requires conscious choice and continuous effort (
Del Castillo 2022b;
Kibiten 2019).
Kibiten (
2019) argued that Cordilleran Indigenous youth successfully navigate traditional and modern social systems. Listening to the voices of the marginalized (
laylayan) sector in society (
Del Castillo 2022b), such as the Indigenous Peoples, must be prioritized in interreligious matters.
1.3. Religiosity among Cordilleran Youth
For the Cordilleran youth, the majority of them were similarly influenced by early missionaries who evangelized the region, aiming to convert the Indigenous Peoples to Christianity to “civilize” and assimilate them into Spanish colonial society (
Molino 2022). Sociologically, the influence of family and community also plays a significant role in the religiosity of Cordilleran youth. According to
Sherkat (
2003), the family is the primary agent of religious socialization, with parents passing on their religious beliefs and practices to their children. Additionally, the community, particularly the church, also serves as a socializing agent that reinforces religious beliefs and practices among the youth.
Furthermore, the sense of identity and belongingness to their culture and ethnicity also influences the religiosity of Cordilleran youth. According to
Ecklund (
2006), the youth’s religious beliefs and practices are intertwined with their cultural and ethnic identity, as they perceive Christianity as a way of affirming their heritage and distinguishing themselves from other cultures. The Cordilleran youth are Indigenous Peoples that reside in the northern part of the Philippines. They have distinct cultural and religious practices shaped by their unique history and experiences. Their religious practices blend Christianity and traditional animism, which involves the worship of ancestral spirits and nature (
Scott 1977). Therefore, the religiosity among Cordilleran youth is shaped by historical and sociological factors, the role of family and community in religious socialization, and the integration of religion with their cultural and ethnic identity.
1.4. Objectives of the Study
In this paper, the researchers looked into the inter-religious construct system of selected university students indigenous to the Cordillera. The Cordilleran youth’s religiosity is particularly interesting to the researchers because their autochthonous religion is marked by a cosmology that includes hundreds of deities and elaborate rituals accompanying personal and social events (
Conklin et al. 1980). However, there have been efforts to Christianize many people living in the Cordillera. As such, around 60% of the Ifugao and other people living in the Mountain Province are Catholics (
Kwiatkowski 2003;
Zapata 2017). Also, there are Indigenous People from the “upland” (areas in the Mountain Province that are above 2100 m) who identify with Protestant Christianity (
Howell 2009). Hence, some people living in the Cordillera practice “religious hybridity”.
Religious hybridity can be described as a phenomenon where individuals combine elements from different religious traditions and show varying degrees of attachment to the traditions (
Berghuijs et al. 2018). Furthermore, many Indigenous youths are responsible for protecting and preserving their traditional lands, resources, and sacred sites (
Fernandez 2016). Nevertheless, as a result of modernization, many Indigenous youths are choosing to pursue careers unrelated to their ancestral heritage but still retain a connection to their traditions. Due to the close relationship that Indigenous People have with their autochthonous religion, culture, and ancestral land, this paper aims to investigate whether the Cordilleran youth have an intense religious life and if faith plays an essential role in their daily lives.
Specifically, this paper answered the following research questions:
Is the inter-religious Centrality of Religiosity Scale (CRSi) valid for this sample population?
Are there significant correlations among the subscales of CRSi for the study population?
Are there differences in the levels of religiosity that appear in inter-religious encounters among the Cordilleran youth based on the sample demographics, such as gender, sexual orientation, religious affiliation, ethnicity, and area of residence?
Are there group differences between participants’ demographics and CRSi subscales?
5. Conclusions
An analysis of the religiosity of Indigenous youth in the Cordillera in this manner is novel and unique. Based on the data analysis, the study shows that most Cordilleran Indigenous youth are highly religious. In a diverse community where different religious and Indigenous traditions are practiced, Cordilleran Indigenous youth continue practicing religious and cultural beliefs. Faith plays an essential role in their daily lives.
In addition, the data results showed that they favored private practice and scored highly on the ideology dimension of religiosity. In other words, the Cordilleran Indigenous youth believe that a transcendent reality exists. The appreciation and acknowledgment of God’s existence in an inter-religious community is present. For them, the conscious choice and continuous effort to navigate traditional and modern social systems are essential.
Furthermore, in public and private spaces, they engage in activities and rituals that contribute to their experience of transcendence.
Eggan and Scott (
1965) classified the ritual life of the Cordilleran Indigenous Peoples as a hybrid, suggesting that their Indigenous cultural practices were influenced by the Christian teachings of the early missionaries. The inter-religiosity is shown in the interconnectedness of faith and culture among the Indigenous youth. They practice the traditional rituals of their community and integrate them with their religious affiliations and belief systems. However, given the results from this study, researchers argue that instead of hybridity, the concept of ambivalence may be used to describe the religiosity of the select Cordilleran Indigenous youth. Ambivalence is defined as the coexistence of different ideas or feelings in the mind or a single context (
Nel 2017).
The richness of the Indigenous culture and the intense missionary work in the Cordilleran regions continue to transform these communities’ cultural and religious conditions. Traditional beliefs and religious practices mutually coexist for the Cordilleran Indigenous Peoples. This ambivalence seems to illuminate the integration of Indigenous tradition and religion, assisting the Cordilleran Indigenous youth to commune with transcendence, practice their religious beliefs, and experience the various dimensions of religiosity.