The Role of Optimism and Abstinence in the Mechanism Underlying the Indirect Links of Religious and Spiritual Involvement with the Happiness of Alcoholics Anonymous from Poland

Abstract

Religiosity and spirituality are important factors for recovery of alcohol-addicted individuals. Previous studies have given some suggestions about the spiritual mechanism that influences the wellbeing of representatives of this group. The purpose of this research was to examine whether religious practices and spiritual experiences are indirectly related, through optimism and duration of abstinence, to the happiness of alcohol-dependent individuals participating in Alcoholics Anonymous (AA). The study had a cross-sectional design; path analysis in structural equation modeling was used. The sample consisted of 115 AA participants in Poland. The Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale (DSES) was used in the study, along with questionnaires surveying three indicators of happiness—desire for life, passion for life, and evaluation of current happiness—along with four further measures—optimism, length of abstinence, frequency of prayer, and frequency of Mass attendance. Confirmed indirect relationship between spiritual experiences and happiness through optimism and the abstinence duration and indirect links between religious practices and happiness. Among AA participants, religious practices were positively related to spiritual growth, which via longer abstinence and higher levels of optimism, were indirectly related to improved happiness. The research results indicate a beneficial role played by religious practices and spiritual experiences in AA participants, associated with their happiness and relevant variables such as optimism and abstinence duration.

1. Introduction

In Poland, alcoholism is a serious social problem. According to data from the Polish State Agency for Prevention of Alcohol-Related Problems in Poland, there are about 800 thousand alcohol-addicted individuals and about 2–2.5 million drink in a harmful way1. The National Sobriety Program was established in 2018 as a method to protect against and prevent alcoholism and its negative social effects2. One of the methods of treatment for alcohol-dependent individuals in Poland is participation in Alcoholics Anonymous (AA). Historically, this fellowship started work in Poland in 1974 (Tadeusz 2012), and thanks to further growth currently 2300 meetings of AA are available in Poland every week3.

Some social, cognitive, and spiritual mechanisms of recovery in this group of individuals have been explored (Kaskutas et al. 2002; Kelly et al. 2012). For example, one source of spiritual growth, leading through hope and meaning in life to subjective well-being, is involvement in AA (Wnuk 2022). Wnuk (2021a) identified the mechanisms underlying the indirect relationship between spiritual experiences and hopelessness, and the beneficial function in this link of hope, meaning in life, and abstinence duration. Little is known about the role of religiosity in the recovery of AA participants (Geppert et al. 2007). One of the reasons for this is the skeptical approach of self-help groups, contributing to a secular, egalitarian fellowship open to different religious affiliations and non-believers alike. This means that religiously inclined alcohol-dependent patients can use this kind of support as a religious mode of spiritual growth, parallel with involvement in AA as a secular form leading to this aim (Atkins and Hawdon 2007; Pardini et al. 2000; Wnuk 2021b). The first approach represents religious spirituality, while the second one represents secular spirituality. Recent research has confirmed that religious commitment and AA involvement are antecedents of spiritual growth (Krentzman et al. 2013, 2017; Wnuk 2021b; Zemore 2007).

The aim of this study was the verification of recovery mechanisms reflecting the indirect relationships between religious and spiritual involvement and the happiness of AA participants, through abstinence and optimism.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Spirituality and Religiosity in Alcoholics Anonymous

According to the philosophy adopted by Alcoholics Anonymous, alcoholism is a chronic, progressive, and fatal disease that has a negative effect on all spheres of functioning, ranging from somatic wellbeing, through mental and social, and ending with spiritual wellbeing (Ugochukwu et al. 2013; Alcoholics Anonymous 2001). Concentration on spiritual growth as the most important element of recovery is considered to be the essence of functioning of this form of support (Alcoholics Anonymous 2001). It is expressed through work on spiritual guidelines on the road to recovery, included in the 12-step program (Twelve Steps and Twelve Traditions 1987). According to AA philosophy, participants receiving this form of support are more likely to identify themselves as spiritual but not religious (McClure and Wilkinson 2020), and in comparison with other recovery groups statistically they more often declared that the 12-step program is spiritual, not religious (Atkins and Hawdon 2007). Despite the emphasis on the spiritual character of the 12-step program, with simultaneous skepticism about its religious inclinations (Atkins and Hawdon 2007; Kurtz 2008), many participants of self-help groups develop their spirituality through religious practices such as prayer or attending Mass. For example, in studies conducted by Koski-Jännes and Turner (1999) it emerged that for 43% of alcoholics prayer was the element that consolidated changes in their recovery process. It has been observed that after one year of treatment, religiosity of alcohol addicts was one of the predictors of involvement in 12-step self-help groups (Mankowski et al. 2001). Also, among Sex and Love Addicts Anonymous (SLAA) from Poland, the strength of religious faith and prayer correlated positively with spiritual experiences (Wnuk 2017).

In the opinion of the majority of researchers, spirituality is not a notion equivalent to religiosity. Religiosity is institutionalized, it has a ritual and ideological character, and it focuses on dogma, rites, and manifestations of cult or ritual, as opposed to spirituality, which has an individual character and concentrates on internal feelings, experiences, and thoughts (Pargament 1999). Opinions predominate that spirituality is a wider term than religiosity (Cawley 1997), although some researchers have tried to prove that it is the other way around (Hill et al. 2000).

Apart from the relation to God or other “Higher Power”, spirituality covers attitudes towards oneself, other people, and the world (Dyson et al. 1997; Martsolf and Mickley 1998). Within the framework of the conducted studies, the author assumed that sources of spiritual experiences can be the participants’ attending Mass and praying. In this context, religious practices can be an antecedent of spiritual experience as an integral part of religiosity (Wulff 1991). According to Underwood and Teresi (2002), spiritual experiences are expressions of the spiritual sphere, functioning and manifesting in a sense of connection with one’s life, a sense of peace, comfort, harmony, a sense of loving God, directly as well as indirectly through other people, a sense of being touched by the beauty of creation or close presence of God. Based on Wnuk’s study (Wnuk 2021b), which confirmed that religiosity was related to spirituality in a sample of alcohol-dependent individuals, positive correlations were expected between Mass attendance, prayer, and spiritual experiences.

Hypothesis 1:

In a sample of AA participants, religious practices such as prayer and attending Mass are positively related to spiritual experiences.

2.2. The Indirect Relationship between Spirituality and Wellbeing through Abstinence

The results of recent studies have proven that AA participants’ spirituality is related to abstinence (Poage et al. 2004; Carroll 1993; Zemore 2007; Polcin and Zemore 2004; Rush 2000). For example, Rush (2000) found positive correlation between spirituality and abstinence duration in a sample of women participating in AA.

In a study conducted with two groups of patients addicted to alcohol, where the group inclusion criterion was duration of abstinence (less than one year vs. more than one year), abstinence longer than one year turned out to be characteristic of participants who manifested higher levels of spirituality, fewer psychiatric symptoms, and more frequent participation in AA (Carter 1998).

In longitudinal studies conducted within a therapy based on the 12-step program, there was an increase in participants’ levels of spirituality in the 12th week in comparison with when the participants started the therapy. A higher level of spirituality characterized individuals who were able to maintain abstinence, in comparison with those who did not achieve this therapeutic aim (Brown et al. 2007). In other research conducted with this group, spirituality correlated positively with abstinence duration (Polcin and Zemore 2004).

Abstinence is not the same as sobriety (Helm 2019); it leads to better mental health and positive outcomes (Kairouz and Dube 2000; Donovan et al. 2005; Foster et al. 1998, 1999). Foster et al. (1999) reviewed of papers regarding abstinence from alcohol and quality of life, and found that these two variables were positively correlated. In a sample of AA participants, length of abstinence correlated positively with wellbeing (Kairouz and Dube 2000). In a nationally representative sample of American adults recovering from alcohol and other drug addiction, abstinence was positively related to five measures of well-being, i.e., quality of life, happiness, self-esteem, recovery capital, and psychological distress, with the exception of the first year during which self-esteem and happiness initially decreased before improving (Kelly et al. 2018).

Among AA participants, indirect relationships between religious or spiritual aspects of functioning and wellbeing were found to be associated with abstinence duration. In a study (Wnuk 2021a) conducted among AA participants from Poland, spiritual experiences were positively related to abstinence, which in turn negatively correlated with hopelessness. This means that within self-help groups, individuals addicted to alcohol develop their spirituality based on their relationship with a “Higher Power”, which for most of them is identified with God, thanks to the support and guidance by which they are able to maintain abstinence. Considering that for many their earlier attempts to maintain abstinence were futile, an increase in the length of abstinence enabled them to experience greater happiness and fulfillment.

Hypothesis 2:

In a sample of alcohol-addicted individuals participating in AA, spiritual experiences are indirectly related to happiness through abstinence duration.

2.3. The Indirect Relationship between Spirituality and Wellbeing through Optimism

Spirituality is an important factor in shaping the optimism of alcohol and drug addicts. For example, Pardini et al. (2000) found that in patients’ recovery from alcohol and drug addiction, strength of faith and spirituality were positively related to optimism. Meanwhile, optimism is an antecedent of wellbeing in alcohol-dependent individuals. In a sample of AA participants’ dispositional optimism, self-esteem, social self-esteem, and social confidence were indicators relating to the factor defined as interpersonal insecurity; this factor was positively indicated by lack of trust, fear of evaluation, interpersonal discomfort, need for approval, and preoccupation (Suire and Bothwell 2006). In other research conducted among recovering alcohol-addicted individuals, dispositional optimism was a predictor of a successful outcome (Strack et al. 1987).

Some studies outside the area of addiction research have indicated optimism as a variable involved in the mechanism underlying the relationship between spirituality and well-being. For example, psychosocial resources consisting of dispositional optimism, self-esteem, and mastery mediated between spirituality and depressive symptoms in a sample of women diagnosed with postpartum depression (Cheadle and Schetter 2018). Also, among older Ghanaian adults (Aglozo et al. 2021), spirituality was indirectly related to negative affect via optimism.

In a sample of females participating in self-help groups for co-dependent individuals, spiritual experiences were indirectly related to life satisfaction via optimism (Wnuk et al. 2009). Co-dependent individuals as participants of self-help groups underwent the same 12-step program as Alcoholics Anonymous; the difference between these two groups refers to the fact that one group is addicted to alcohol and the other presents a codependency to an addicted person. It can therefore be assumed that among AA participants, optimism can be a variable that mediates between life satisfaction and the frequency of spiritual experiences.

Hypothesis 3:

Among AA participants, spiritual experiences are indirectly related to happiness through optimism.

Hypothesis 4:

Religious practices are indirectly related to happiness.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Participants

Participants in the presented studies were randomly selected from AA participants in Poland. All the investigated individuals expressed their consent to take part in the research project. Questionnaires were distributed by a psychologist before meetings of particular AA groups, and collected one week later, during a consecutive meeting. Out of 200 questionnaires given out to the participants, 115 were handed back. All participants were Roman Catholic. The mean age of the subjects was 50.00 years (SD = 10.8). The mean abstinence duration was 6.05 years (SD = 6.03), and the mean length of AA attendance was 8.41 years (SD = 7.57). The reliability of this happiness scale as a latent variable containing three measurable indicators was α = 0.67. The internal validity of this tool was confirmed by confirmatory factor analysis.

3.2. Measures

3.2.1. Spiritual Experiences

The Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale (DSES) consists of 16 questions. In the reported study, a shorter version of this questionnaire was applied. The investigated individuals responded using a six-point scale, ranging from 1 = never or almost never, to 6 = many times a day. The higher the number of points obtained by the person, the higher that person’s level of spirituality. This measure presents satisfactory psychometric properties. Its reliability has been tested in different research populations, achieving results from α = 0.86 to α = 0.95 (Laustalot et al. 2006). The Polish adaptation of this tool was constructed by Wnuk (2009), confirming a two-factorial structure consistent with the original version (Laustalot et al. 2006), and excellent reliability measured by α-Cronbach coefficient, which for students as well as alcohol-dependent individuals was α = 0.94.

In the reported research project, its reliability was α = 0.94.

3.2.2. Happiness

According to Czapinski’s onion theory of happiness (Czapinski 1992), three indicators of happiness were used; i.e., desire for life, passion for life, and current happiness evaluation. Desire for life was rated on a 0 to 9 continuum, from 0 meaning total lack of desire for life (the answer: “I don’t want to live”) to 9 meaning the strongest desire for life (answer: “I want to live very much”). Passion for life was measured by participants’ choice of response from three possible answers: (Is life boring (0), bland (1), or exciting (2)? Current happiness was indicated by marking one of the four answers: Not happy (0), happy (1), quite happy (2), and very happy (3). The one-factor happiness structure encompassing three measurable indicators was confirmed using confirmation factor analysis (CFA). Values of loading for this factor were satisfactory; for the desire for life it was 0.81, for passion for life 0.75, and for evaluation of happiness 0.76. These three indicators explained 59.88% of the variance in happiness, which was more than the required minimum, which is 50% (Pallant 2016).

The reliability of this measure examined by α-Cronbach coefficient was 0.67.

3.2.3. Optimism

Optimism was assessed by using one statement “I am always optimistic in relation to the future”. Research participants responded on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = categorically disagree to 4 = decidedly agree.

3.2.4. Abstinence Duration

On the question regarding abstinence duration, participants reported the number of years they have remained in abstinence.

3.2.5. Religious Practices

Religious practices were identified with the use of two questions, pertaining to the frequency of prayer and the frequency of attending Mass. The scale for measuring how often participants attended Mass consisted of 1 = never, with the exception of baptisms, marriages, or funerals; 2 = a few times a year; 3 = once or twice per month; 4 = two or three times per month; and 5 = once per week or more. The five-point scale for measuring how often the participants prayed consisted of never, sometimes, once monthly, once weekly, and every day.

4. Statistical Analysis and Results

Harman’s single factor test was applied to examine common method bias, but the results (35.34% of explained variance, Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin statistic = 0.727; χ² = 302.64; df = 26; p < 0.001) were lower than threshold, which is more than 40% (Podsakoff et al. 2003). To verify the research hypotheses, path analysis with structural equations modelling (SEM) was used. Descriptive statistics are shown in

Table 1. Descriptive statistics for a sample of Alcoholics Anonymous (n = 115).

Variable	Minimum	Maximum	Mean	Standard Deviation	Skewness	Kurtosis
Desire for life	3	9	7.76	1.58	−1.36	1.28
Passion for life	0	3	1.3	0.53	0.52	−0.01
Evaluation of happiness	0	3	1.53	0.81	−0.55	−0.37
Frequency of spiritual experiences	7	35	23.25	6.59	−0.7	−0.26
Optimism	1	4	2.97	0.67	−0.41	0.84
Abstinence duration	0	26	5.61	5.78	1.26	0.99
Frequency of prayer	1	5	3.53	1.64	−0.50	−1.6
Frequency of Mass attendance	1	5	4.09	1.44	−1.16	−0.4
Age	23	73	50.03	10.70	−0.43	−0.39

(Source: author’s research).

.

Results of correlation coefficients are presented in

Table 2. Correlation matrix (n = 115).

	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
1. Desire for life
2. Passion for life	0.42 **
3. Evaluation of happiness	0.43 **	0.34 **
4. Frequency of spiritual experiences	0.20 *	0.14	0.30 **
5. Optimism	0.35 **	0.31 **	0.48 **	0.32 **
6. Abstinence duration	0.22 **	0.17 *	0.31 **	0.28 **	0.27 **
7. Frequency of prayer	0.05	−0.06	0.14	0.56 **	0.09	0.20 *
8. Frequency of Mass attendance	0.04	0.07	0.12	0.76 **	0.18	0.16	0.59 **
9. Age	0.12	0.01	0.17	0.22 *	0.31 **	0.50 **	0.11 **	0.19 *	0.26 **	0.56 **

(Source: author’s research), * p ≤ 0.05, ** p ≤ 0.01.

.

Following Mardia’s (1970) coefficient, the skewness of study variables was less than 2.0 and kurtosis less than 7.0. This implies that data distribution was close to normal distribution, a premise to applying the maximum likelihood method. The significance of the indirect effect was tested using the bootstrapping method, which is considered the best available option for estimating indirect effects, using 5000 subsamples and a 95% bias-corrected confidence interval (Hayes 2013).

Results of path analysis are presented in Figure 1. Age was the only control variable. Several indicators of model fit were applied; i.e., formed fit index (NFI), comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker–Lewis index (TLI), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). Due to the relatively small sample the Bollen–Stine bootstrapping method was used to increase the likelihood of veracity of the obtained results.

Achieved results indicated the model’s good fit: χ²(21) = 20.25; p = 0.5; CMIN/df = 0.96; CFI = 1; TLI = 1; NFI = 0.94; RMSEA = 0.000 (90% CI [0.000, 0.079]); SRMR = 0.0548. The Bollen–Stine bootstrapping method (p = 0.58) also confirmed the good fit.

Statistically, prayer was significantly directly related to spiritual experiences (95% CI [0.50, 0.81]; p = 0.031; β = 0.66), and indirectly related to optimism (95% CI [0.61, 0.37]; p = 0.008; β = 0.21), abstinence duration (95% CI [0.40, 0.24]; p = 0.005; β = 0.14) and happiness (95% CI [0.61, 0.26]; p = 0.001; β = 0.15).

Mass attendance was directly related to spiritual experiences (95% CI [0.36, 0.01]; p = 0.045; β = 0.18) and indirectly related to optimism (95% CI [0.01, 0.16]; p = 0.001; β = 0.06), abstinence duration (95% CI [0.01, 0.11]; p = 0.008; β = 0.04), and happiness (95% CI [0.01, 0.11]; p = 0.000; β = 0.04).

There was a statistically significant direct effect of spiritual experiences on optimism (95% CI [0.74, 0.52]; p = 0.012; β = 0.31) and abstinence duration (95% CI [0.58, 0.35]; p = 0.007; β = 0.22), and an indirect effect of spiritual experiences on happiness through these variables (95% CI [0.08, 0.38]; p = 0.001; β = 0.23). Also, optimism (95% CI [0.31, 0.73]; p = 0.000; β = 0.53) and abstinence duration (95% CI [0.04, 0.46]; p = 0.023; β = 0.27) were each directly related to happiness.

The results of total indirect effects and specific indirect effects of spiritual experiences and religious practices on happiness are presented in

Table 3. Results of total indirect effects and specific indirect effects; 95% confidence interval.

Pathway	Total Indirect Effect	Specific Indirect Effect	p	LLCI	ULCI
Prayer—DSES—optimism—happiness	-	0.095	0.009	0.210	0.009
Prayer—DSES—abstinence—happiness	-	0.035	0.022	0.084	0.022
Prayer—happiness	0.130	-	0.002	0.251	0.002
Mass attendance—DSES—optimism—happiness	-	0.023	0.039	0.081	0.039
Mass attendance—DSES—abstinence—happiness	-	0.009	0.036	0.036	0.035
Mass attendance—happiness	0.032	-	0.040	0.100	0.040
DSES—optimism—happiness	-	0.031	0.010	0.068	0.010
DSES—abstinence—happiness	-	0.011	0.021	0.027	0.021
DSES—happiness	0.043	-	0.021	0.080	0.002

(Source: author’s research). LLCI = 95% confidence interval (low); ULCI = 95% confidence interval (high). DSES—Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale.

. All these results were statistically significant, confirming that religious practices and spiritual experiences are indirectly related to the happiness of AA participants from Poland.

5. Discussion

The aim of this study was the examination of indirect relationships between religious practices, spiritual experiences, and happiness, considering the role of optimism and abstinence in these connections. Hypothesis 1, according to which AA participants’ religious practices are positively related to spiritual experiences, was confirmed. The more frequently the study subjects prayed and attended Masses, the more frequently they felt spiritual experiences. These findings are consistent with previous studies indicating that religious commitment, both private and public, is positively linked with the spiritual growth of members of AA (Pardini et al. 2000). AA is a secular fellowship (Alcoholics Anonymous 2001; Kurtz 2008) and the 12-step program has a spiritual character (Twelve Steps and Twelve Traditions 1987). Regardless of skepticism about its religious inclinations (Atkins and Hawdon 2007; Kurtz 2008), Polish participants in AA use prayer and attend Mass to attain spiritual experiences. It is worth noticing that the religious affiliation of all research participants was Roman Catholic. Furthermore, Poland is a very religious country. Attendance at religious services at least monthly has been reported by 61% of Poles, which is the highest level in Europe. Daily prayer was reported in 27% of the Polish population4.

Prayer is an important spiritual practice in the recovery process for alcohol-addicted individuals (Koski-Jännes and Turner 1999); step eleven of the 12-step program encourages Alcoholics Anonymous participants “through prayer and meditation to improve conscious contact with God” and has been positively related to meaning in life (Carroll 1993). Additionally, in a sample of Polish participants in Sex and Love Addicted Anonymous using a 12-step program adapted from Alcoholics Anonymous, prayer but not Mass attendance was a predictor of spiritual experiences (Wnuk 2017).

Hypothesis 2 was confirmed, identifying abstinence as a consequence of spiritual experiences related to the happiness of AA participants. More frequent spiritual experiences are related to longer abstinence, the consequence of which is the participant feeling happier. These results correspond with the previous studies suggesting that spiritual involvement is connected with maintaining abstinence (Poage et al. 2004; Carroll 1993; Zemore 2007; Polcin and Zemore 2004; Rush 2000), which in turn correlates with the wellbeing of alcohol-addicted individuals (Kairouz and Dube 2000; Donovan et al. 2005; Foster et al. 1998, 1999; Kelly et al. 2018). They also agree with recent research by Wnuk (2021a), emphasizing the beneficial role of spirituality for wellbeing in AA participants regardless of the wellbeing indicators employed. In this study, three indicators of one latent happiness variable were applied, in contrast to the above project where a negative wellbeing measure including aspects such as hopelessness was used.

Most of the relevant research has used abstinence as a recovery indicator. Kelly et al. (2018) proved that relationships between abstinence and two quality of life indicators, i.e., self-esteem and happiness, had no linear character and were dependent on sex and race. Amodeo et al. (1992) found that the relationship between the length of abstinence and life satisfaction was curvilinear. Abstinence as a factor is necessary but insufficient to achieve sobriety; the two concepts should not be used interchangeably. Sobriety assumes a positive mental, emotional, and spiritual state of mind, stressing deep transformation and relying on better access to emotions and more effective emotional regulation (Helm 2019). Happiness is a manifestation of sobriety and abstinence duration was on the border of weak and moderate strength for predicting this variable.

Hypothesis 3, regarding the indirect link between spiritual experiences and happiness of AA via optimism, was also confirmed. Similar to a sample of women diagnosed with postpartum depression (Cheadle and Schetter 2018), among Ghanaian older adults (Aglozo et al. 2021), and in a sample of codependent individuals participating in Al.-Anon (Wnuk et al. 2009), spirituality was indirectly related to wellbeing via optimism. This indicates that in a sample of alcohol-addicted individuals, optimism as a consequence of spiritual growth is an important factor in recovery measured by the subjective feeling of happiness (Strack et al. 1987). Hypothesis 4, the indirect relationship between religious practices and happiness, was also positively verified. In accordance with expectations, prayer and Mass attendance were indirectly linked with happiness through the pathways spiritual experiences–optimism and spiritual experiences–abstinence duration. It is worth noting that the specific indirect effect related to happiness via optimism was in cases stronger in comparison than the strength of these effects via abstinence duration. This shows that involvement in religious practices and spiritual growth more beneficial for happiness through optimism than the same mechanism via abstinence duration.

The results of this research can be explained within social learning theory (Bandura 1986), which is a good framework for considering the psycho-socio-spiritual transformation of AA participants (Kaskutas 2009; Smith 2021). The main aims of AA are to stay sober and to help other alcoholics achieve sobriety (Alcoholics Anonymous 2001). The way to achieve these aims is to build bonds with other AA members and God as sources of support, facilitating a feeling of connection with other people and God as an element of spiritual growth. As was shown in this study, this can be realized by religious practices. Relationships with other AA participants are a good opportunity to learn how to stay sober. Spiritual growth is a framework for building mutual trust, support, and open-to-learning ties within AA. Sponsorship is a prominent opportunity to help other self-help group participants with short careers in AA to stay sober. In the process of mutual exchange both sponsor and sponsee can learn ways to maintain alcohol abstinence and build an optimistic attitude. In this relationship, sharing experiences and giving examples represent chances to model effective pro-abstinence and optimistic cognitive schema and behaviors. During AA meetings and other public and private AA activities, participants are given the chance to engage in social learning with a sober and optimistic approach to living, based on examples of “old-timers” who are reliable as real witnesses of their own transformation and that of their colleagues.

The research conducted here yields some theoretical implications. First, the beneficial function of religious practices for spiritual growth within religious spirituality (Wnuk 2021b) was confirmed for alcohol-addicted individuals participating in AA. Religious and spiritual commitment were identified as positive factors for the happiness of AA members. Spiritual mechanisms underlying the links between religiosity, spirituality, and AA participants’ happiness were examined and explained. In this group, spiritual experiences were indirectly related to happiness through abstinence and optimism. This means that among Anonymous Alcoholics participants spiritual experiences are beneficial for the maintenance of abstinence and optimism, which in turn are positively correlated with happiness. Additionally, two mechanisms of the indirect effects of religious practices on happiness were identified through two pathways; spiritual experiences and abstinence, as well as spiritual experiences and optimism. AA participants who used religious practices more frequently felt spiritual experiences, which in turn were positively linked with abstinence and optimism, and finally, through these variables, with happiness.

Practical implications of the reported studies are addressed mainly to therapists, social workers, and priests who have contact with individuals addicted to alcohol. The results indicate that religious and spiritual experiences can have a significant supporting role in recovery processes among alcohol addicts. Religious individuals addicted to alcohol should especially be engaged in religious practices as an important source of spiritual experiences. Non-religious individuals, agnostics, and atheists should participate in secular practices and exercises such as meditation, contemplation yoga, mindfulness, etc., to improve their spirituality.

In their therapeutic actions, experts, therapists, and psychologists should focus on preparing and implementing programs and therapeutic interventions based on improving spirituality and optimism. Furthermore, combining therapeutic actions with participation in self-help groups can yield better effects than using only one form of support.

6. Limitations and Future Research

The conducted studies had certain limitations, one of which is the external validity of their results that may apply only to this population. Secondly, the studies were cross-sectional, not longitudinal, which is why we cannot analyze the described relationships from the perspective of cause-and-effect. The applied research method points to the direction of the relationship between the analyzed variables, finding that spiritual experiences as an effect of religious practices, through optimism and abstinence were indirectly related to happiness in AA participants. The sample was relatively small, and bootstrapping was required. Additionally, optimism was measured using only one item.

Future research should focus on other groups of alcohol addicts outside the AA environment, in another cultural context, in countries without such religious involvement as Poland, representative of denominations and religions other than Roman Catholic, in subjects addicted to drugs, sex, etc., and using other potential secular antecedents of spiritual experiences. It will be interesting to observe the mechanisms of the indirect impact of spiritual experiences on happiness through abstinence and optimism in another group of addicted individuals, regardless of the form of addiction, religious affiliation, or self-help group affiliation.