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Article

Effects of Biodegradable Film Mulching and Water-Saving Irrigation on Soil Moisture and Temperature in Paddy Fields of the Black Soil Region

by
Jizhen Li
1,2,†,
Yuning He
1,2,†,
Jilong Liu
1,2,*,
Yinqi Wang
1,2,
Yunze Guo
1,2 and
Yuchen Lu
1,2
1
School of Water Conservancy and Civil Engineering, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
2
Key Laboratory of Effective Utilization of Agricultural Water Resources, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Harbin 150030, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally as co-first authors.
Agriculture 2025, 15(18), 1956; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15181956
Submission received: 5 August 2025 / Revised: 1 September 2025 / Accepted: 11 September 2025 / Published: 16 September 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Water Management)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

Paddy cultivation in the black soil region of northeast China is faced with the problems of low irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) and low temperature stress during sowing. Therefore, the combinations of film mulching and water-saving irrigation methods were adopted to adjust the balance between water and yield under the condition of suitable soil water and heat environment, and to quantify the relationship between irrigation water and yield formation. This study investigated the mechanisms of two kinds of biodegradable film mulching combined with two water-saving irrigation on soil hydrothermal conditions in cold-region paddy fields. The results show that film mulching improved the water retention capacity of the soil at different depths, with black film exhibiting better moisture conservation than white film. Overall, controlled irrigation resulted in higher soil moisture than ridge irrigation before the heading–flowering stage, but lower values in heading–flower stage and the later stage. Film mulching also increased soil temperature across different layers, with black film showing a more warming effect in the 0–5 cm soil layer. All combinations of biodegradable film mulching and water-saving irrigation enhanced the IWUE, with the ridge irrigation combined with black film mulching showing the most significant improvement. This research provides technical references for water-efficient rice cultivation in cold regions.

1. Introduction

At present, IWUE in China is approximately 40% lower than the world’s advanced level [1]. The main influencing factors of IWUE are crop yield and irrigation water volume. As an important rice production base in China [2], the black soil region of Northeast China is endowed with abundant soil resources. However, due to its unique geographical location and climatic conditions, low temperatures in northeast China restrict the formation of rice grains [3], resulting in great potential for improving IWUE. Moreover, irrigation water volume can regulate the growth status of crops by altering the soil moisture in paddy fields [4], thereby affecting IWUE. Therefore, regulating soil water and heat conditions through agricultural technical measures to improve the IWUE of paddy fields is of great significance for ensuring the stable and sustainable ecological development of paddy fields in cold regions.
Film mulching is an important agricultural cultivation, water-saving and efficiency-enhancing technical measure in China; as a substitute for conventional polyethylene plastic film, degradable film has demonstrated favorable effects in agricultural production practices [5]. Before degradation, the mulching degree of biodegradable film differs slightly from that of conventional plastic film, and both exhibit similar water retention and heat preservation effects. After degradation, their water retention and heat preservation capabilities decrease [6]. Studies have shown that biodegradable film results in lower water use efficiency compared with conventional plastic film [7]; this is because the degradation period coincides with the crop filling and reproductive periods, and fluctuations in soil water content during this period can reduce crop yield [8]. Studies have indicated that film mulching increases soil moisture content; however, Yin et al. [7] argued that biodegradable film mulching promotes root water uptake, which in turn reduces soil moisture content. The differences observed may be attributed to the local semi-arid climate, the poor water retention capacity and high infiltration tendency of sandy loam soil, as well as the cultivation of dryland crops. Specifically, the heat preservation effect of film mulching promotes crop growth, which leads to an increase in crop water consumption that exceeds the increment in water retention. Films of different colors vary in their absorption and reflection of solar radiation, thereby exerting different degrees of influence on soil water and heat [9]. Some studies have found that soil moisture content and temperature under black film mulching are higher than those under white film mulching [10]. In contrast, Ye et al. [11] reported that the daily average soil water content under white film mulching is higher than that under black film mulching. Mu et al. [12] found that white film mulching receives more direct solar radiation than black film mulching, thus having a stronger effect on increasing soil temperature.
Water-saving irrigation practices modify soil moisture content and its transport processes, which in turn influence the soil temperature regime [13]. Compared to traditional irrigation, water-saving methods significantly improve water use efficiency [14]. Studies have found that water-saving irrigation had a substantial impact on soil moisture in the 0–40 cm layer, while having a more pronounced effect on soil temperature in the 0–5 cm layer [15]. However, most existing studies have focused on the effects of film mulching and irrigation methods in dryland farming systems. Research on the combined effects of biodegradable film mulching and water-saving irrigation on soil hydrothermal dynamics in paddy fields within the black soil region remains insufficient.
This study investigates the variations in soil moisture and temperature across different soil depths and rice growth stages under various mulching and irrigation treatments and calculates the IWUE of different treatments. The aim is to characterize the soil hydrothermal responses to different treatment combinations, elucidate the underlying mechanisms, and identify optimal combinations of biodegradable film mulching and water-saving irrigation suitable for rice cultivation in the black soil region. The findings are expected to provide a scientific basis for the efficient and sustainable utilization of soil water and heat resources in this important agricultural area.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experimental Site

The field experiment was conducted at the Rice Irrigation Experimental Station (127°40′45″ E, 46°57′28″ N) in Heilongjiang Province, China (Figure 1). The site is located in the core area of the cold-region black soil zone of China with distinct seasonal variations; the annual average temperature is 3.6 °C, the annual precipitation is 543.5 mm, the average relative humidity is 67%, the annual sunshine duration is 2682.4 h, and the annual accumulated temperature is 2755 °C. The meteorological data of the test season are shown in Figure 2 below, and the frost-free period lasts for about 143 days. The physicochemical properties of the topsoil at the experimental site are as follows: pH value of 6.73, organic matter content of 25.68 g/kg, total nitrogen content of 15.1 g/kg, total phosphorus content of 15.61 g/kg, total potassium content of 19.86 g/kg, and available nitrogen content (alkali-hydrolyzed nitrogen) of 148.27 mg/kg. The field capacity of the 0–20 cm soil layer in the experimental area is 29%, and the wilting coefficient is 0.093 [16]. The soil in the experimental field is mainly of the Mollisol type, and the soil texture in the 0–20 cm soil layer is uniformly sandy clay. For the 0–20 cm, the sand content is 36.7%, the silt content is 31.8%, and the clay content is 29.5% [17].

2.2. Field Management and Experiment Design

The experiment included two water-saving irrigation methods: ridge irrigation and controlled irrigation. These were combined with biodegradable film mulching in black and white colors. Traditional irrigation without film mulching (CK) was used as the control. The detailed treatment schemes are shown in Table 1. Under the CK treatment, except for the natural drying during the yellow ripening stage, a standing water layer of 3–5 cm was maintained throughout the rice growth period. For the controlled irrigation treatment, soil moisture was maintained at 85–100% of the saturated water content during all growth stages except the yellow ripening stage. Under the ridge cultivation irrigation condition, furrows with a depth of 15 cm and a width of 20 cm were dug at intervals of 180 cm. Except for the natural drying of the field during the yellow ripening stage, the furrows were kept filled with water and the film surface remained moist throughout all other growth stages. All biodegradable films used were mainly made from polybutylene adipate-co-terephthalate (PBAT) and polypropylene carbonate (PPC). The mulching was conducted before rice transplanting: the films were completely covered on the soil surface, and the edges of the films were pressed with soil. It is worth noting that no film was mulched in the furrows under the ridge cultivation irrigation conditions. The degradation rates of 0–120-day mulch films treated with TB, TW, DB, and DW are 0.72%/d, 0.682%/d, 0.725%/d, and 0.681%/d, respectively.
A total of seven treatments were designed, each with three replicates, resulting in 21 experimental communities. Every plot covered an area of 100 m2, arranged in a randomized block design. To prevent lateral water movement between plots, waterproof plastic membranes (60 cm deep) were installed between adjacent plots; the distance between every two plots was 1.5 m. Herbicides and insecticides were applied via unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) during the jointing–booting stage of rice. Fertilizer was applied as a basal dressing before film mulching, utilizing the method of manual broadcasting. The types of fertilizers used included urea (with a nitrogen [N] content of 46%), diammonium phosphate (containing 18% N, 46% phosphorus pentoxide [P2O5], and a total nutrient content of 64%), and potassium oxide (K2O) (with a K2O content of 46%). All treatments received N at 110 kg/hm2, P2O5 at 45 kg/hm2, and K2O at 80 kg/hm2. In this study, the local rice cultivar Suijing 18 was used. Transplanting was carried out immediately after film application.
Field experiments were conducted from 6 May 2021 to 18 September 2021. The green returning stage of rice was from 19 May 2021 to 6 June 2021; the tillering stage was from 7 June 2021 to 1 July 2021; the jointing–booting stage was from 2 July 2021 to 17 July 2021; the heading–flowering stage was from 18 July 2021 to 6 August 2021; the milk ripening–grain filling stage was from 7 August 2021 to 19 August 2021; and the yellow ripening stage was from 20 August 2021 to 18 September 2021.

2.3. Observations and Measurements

(1) Soil Temperature Measurement
Curved-tube soil thermometers (HY-1 type) were installed at soil depths of 5 cm, 10 cm, and 15 cm in the center of each experimental plot. For the ridge irrigation treatments, the thermometers were placed at the midpoint of the soil surface between the two trenches. Soil temperature measurements were conducted from the early tillering stage to the end of the milky ripening stage, with observations taken every 7 days. On each observation day, soil temperatures were recorded at 08:00, 12:00, and 18:00. The average of these three readings was calculated as the daily mean soil temperature. For each growth stage, the average of all daily mean values under the same treatment was used to represent the mean soil temperature for that treatment during the corresponding growth stage.
(2) Soil Moisture Measurement
Soil samples were collected from the 0–5 cm, 5–10 cm, and 10–15 cm soil layers in each experimental plot. For ridge irrigation treatments, samples were taken from the leveled soil surface between the two trenches. Soil gravimetric water content was determined using the oven-drying method. Sampling dates were consistent with those used for soil temperature measurements. For each growth stage, the average of all measured soil moisture values under the same treatment was used as the mean soil moisture content for that stage.
(3) Irrigation Water Use Efficiency Measurement
Irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) was calculated using the following formula:
IWUE = Y/I
where IWUE is the irrigation water use efficiency (kg/m3), Y is the grain yield (kg/ha), and I is the total irrigation water applied during the rice growing season (m3/ha).

2.4. Data Processing Methods

Excel 2021 was used to organize the data, and the average value was adopted for each indicator. Origin 2024 was employed for graphing, while SPSS 27.0 (statistical analysis software) was applied to conduct significance analysis, Pearson correlation analysis, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and multi-way ANOVA on the data.

3. Results

3.1. Effects of Combined Biodegradable Film Mulching and Water-Saving Irrigation on Soil Moisture Content

Figure 3 illustrates the variation trends in soil moisture content across different soil layers and rice growth stages. As shown in Figure 3, the soil moisture content under the CK treatment was significantly higher than that under the combined biodegradable film mulching and water-saving irrigation treatments (p < 0.05), with increases ranging from 1.64% to 35.93%. Across all growth stages and treatments, soil moisture content showed a trend of decreasing with increasing soil depth.
Under the same water-saving method, the soil moisture content in different soil layers under mulching treatments was generally higher than that under non-mulching treatments. Except for the 5–10 cm and 10–15 cm soil layers under ridge irrigation during the late tillering stage, heading–flowering stage, and milk grain-filling stage, the soil moisture content under black biodegradable film mulching was higher than that under white biodegradable film mulching, with an increase range of 0.16–12.10%, and the improvement effect was the strongest in the 0–5 cm layer. The result of the multi-way ANOVA showed that biodegradable film mulching treatments had extremely significant effects on soil moisture content (p < 0.001) (Table 2). Under the same mulching condition, the effect of different irrigation methods on soil moisture content varied across different growth stages. Overall, with the heading–flowering stage as the dividing point, the soil moisture content in different soil layers under controlled irrigation was generally higher than that under ridge irrigation before the heading–flowering stage, while it was generally lower than that under ridge irrigation during the heading–flowering stage and milk grain-filling stage. This phenomenon may be attributed to the fact that rice mainly absorbs water from shallow soil layers and has low transpiration in the early growth stage; controlled irrigation significantly maintains the moisture stability of the plow layer by reducing evaporation and deep percolation [18]. In the latter two growth stages, the water demand of rice increased sharply, and the roots penetrated deeper into the soil. Ridge tillage irrigation promoted lateral water movement by modifying the surface microtopography, improved soil permeability, and optimized the water distribution in the crop root zone [19], thereby reducing water leakage and ensuring the efficient use of irrigation water. The results of the multi-way ANOVA showed that water-saving irrigation treatments had extremely significant effects on soil moisture content (p < 0.001) (Table 2).
In conclusion, film mulching can increase soil moisture content by inhibiting soil water evaporation between plant rows [20]; under the same water-saving irrigation method, black biodegradable film mulching has a better water retention effect than white biodegradable film mulching; the soil moisture content under controlled irrigation is higher before the heading–flowering stage, while the opposite is true during the heading–flowering stage and milk grain-filling stage.

3.2. Effects of Combined Biodegradable Film Mulching and Water-Saving Irrigation on Soil Temperature

Figure 4 presents the variation trends in soil temperature at different depths across rice growth stages. As shown in Figure 4, the period generally shows a fluctuating trend of first decreasing, then increasing, and then decreasing again. In the 0–5 cm layer, soil temperatures under the CK treatment were consistently higher than those of the non-mulched treatments but lower than those of the mulched treatments, except for the TM treatment at the jointing-booting stage and the TW at the late tillering stage, heading–flowering stage, and milk-ripening filling stage. For the 5–10 cm and 10–15 cm layers, soil temperatures under all combinations of biodegradable film mulching and water-saving irrigation treatments were generally higher than those under the CK treatment. Except for the TM treatment during the late tillering stage, where soil temperature below 10 cm increased with depth, soil temperatures across all other treatments and growth stages showed a trend of decreasing with increasing soil depth.
Under the same water-saving method, soil temperatures under mulching treatments were generally higher than those under non-mulching treatments across all soil layers and growth stages, except for the 5–10 cm layer during the milk grain-filling stage under the TW treatment, and for the 10–15 cm layer during the late tillering stage under TB and TW, as well as during the milk grain-filling stage under TW. The temperature increases under biodegradable film mulching, indicating that biodegradable film mulching effectively enhances soil temperature. This is likely because solar radiation can penetrate the film and reach the soil surface, while the film also reduces the loss of soil heat through long-wave radiation to the atmosphere [21]. At the 0–5 cm soil layer, in addition to controlling irrigation during the jointing–booting stage and ridge irrigation at the end of tillering, black biodegradable film mulching resulted in 0.60–3.72% higher temperatures compared to white biodegradable film, suggesting that black biodegradable film provides better thermal insulation in the surface layer. In contrast, the influence of different colored mulch films on soil temperature in the 5–10 cm and 10–15 cm soil layers were not obvious. The results of the multi-way ANOVA showed that biodegradable film mulching treatments had extremely significant effects on soil temperature (p < 0.001) (Table 2). Under the same mulching conditions, differences in soil temperature among different irrigation methods generally were not statistically significant (p < 0.05), indicating that the irrigation method had a relatively weak influence on soil temperature at different depths. The results of the multi-way ANOVA showed that water-saving irrigation treatments had no significant effects on soil temperature (Table 2).

3.3. Effects of Combined Biodegradable Film Mulching and Water-Saving Irrigation on Irrigation Water Use Efficiency

Figure 5 illustrates IWUE under different treatments. As shown in the figure, all combinations of biodegradable film mulching and water-saving irrigation significantly improved IWUE compared to the CK treatment (p < 0.05), with increases ranging from 75.00% to 325.00%. This indicates that the integration of film mulching with water-saving irrigation can effectively enhance irrigation efficiency. Among all treatments, ridge irrigation combined with black film mulching achieved the highest IWUE, showing an improvement of 325.00% over the CK treatment. This can be attributed to the low light transmittance and high heat absorption capacity of black film [9], which suppresses weed growth and reduces competition for water, while simultaneously increasing soil temperature and promoting early rice development [22,23]. In addition, it effectively reduces soil evaporation and enhances soil moisture conservation [24]. The use of black film also facilitates dynamic regulation of light and heat across different growth stages, aligning with crop water demand and thus supporting healthy crop development and higher yields. Furthermore, the ridge structure reduces deep percolation losses through horizontal lateral seepage, and the furrows between ridges store water that can be redistributed during peak water demand periods. This, in synergy with the water-conserving effect of black film, contributes to the substantial improvement in irrigation water use efficiency.
Under the same irrigation method, the IWUE of black and white film mulching treatments was 96.83% and 66.67% higher, respectively, than that of the non-mulched treatment. This indicates that, under identical irrigation conditions, film mulching significantly improves IWUE compared to no mulching. The improvement can be attributed to the ability of film mulching to reduce surface soil water evaporation [20], increase soil temperature during early spring when ambient temperatures are low [22], and promote root development. These effects enhance water uptake efficiency and ultimately improve IWUE [25]. Compared to white film, black film further increased IWUE by 13.33–18.10% under the same irrigation method, suggesting that black film is more effective than white film in enhancing water use efficiency. The results of the multi-way ANOVA showed that biodegradable film mulching treatments had extremely significant effects on IWUE (p < 0.001) (Table 2). When film type was held constant, ridge irrigation improved IWUE by 14.29–28.57% compared to controlled irrigation. This can be attributed to the lower total irrigation volume required for ridge irrigation and the ability of the ridge–furrow system to regulate field water distribution more effectively. Such a structure ensures that a larger proportion of irrigation water is retained within the crop root zone, thereby improving water availability [26]. Moreover, the ridge planting system improves canopy ventilation and light penetration, enhancing photosynthesis and dry matter accumulation in rice plants [27], which contributes to yield improvement. Therefore, compared with controlled irrigation, ridge irrigation enables more precise regulation of both irrigation quantity and spatial water distribution. By reducing irrigation water input while meeting the water requirements of rice at different growth stages, ridge irrigation simultaneously increases yield and decreases water use, leading to a significant improvement in irrigation water use efficiency. The results of the multi-way ANOVA showed that water-saving irrigation treatments had extremely significant effects on IWUE (p < 0.001) (Table 2). The correlations between soil hydrothermal conditions in different soil layers and IWUE are shown in Table 3. In the 0–5 cm, 5–10 cm soil layers, IWUE was significantly positively correlated with soil temperature (p < 0.05); among them, the correlation between soil temperature in the 5–10 cm layer and IWUE was the strongest, with a correlation coefficient of 0.87. In the 0–5 cm, 5–10 cm, and 10–15 cm soil layers, soil moisture content was negatively correlated with IWUE, and the correlation was not significant.

4. Discussion

4.1. Soil Moisture Content Changes Under Different Treatments

The results of the multi-way ANOVA showed that different biodegradable film mulching treatments, water-saving irrigation treatments, and their interaction all had extremely significant effects on soil moisture content (p < 0.001). This study suggests that under the same irrigation method, the soil moisture content under mulching treatments was generally higher than that under non-mulching treatments. This is because film mulching improves soil moisture content by blocking the material exchange between soil and atmosphere, inhibiting water evaporation, and altering the law of its vertical migration [24,28]. However, Yin et al. [7] found that covering with biodegradable film significantly reduced soil moisture content, mainly because film mulching increased the soil temperature and promoted water absorption by crop roots. The reason for this discrepancy is that the water sources for paddy fields in this study were mainly irrigation and precipitation, and film mulching reduced the evaporation of water from the soil to the atmosphere; rice roots mainly absorbed shallow-layer water [29], and at the same time, the supply of irrigation water was fast after root water absorption, so the promoting effect of film mulching on root water absorption was lower than its water-retaining effect. In the study of Yin et al. [7], the farmland water mainly depended on precipitation, and crop root water absorption relied on soil water storage; the amount of soil water consumed by crops was much greater than the increment of water retained by film mulching. Additionally, considering that the water retention capacity of sandy loam in that study was lower than that of black soil [30], evaporation was more vigorous, thereby reducing soil moisture content. The study indicated that black film mulching had a better soil water retention effect than white film, which contrasts with the findings of Qu et al. [31]. Although black film has a higher heat absorption capacity, the downward heat conduction of the black film slows down the intense temperature rise of the surface soil [9]. Moreover, the relatively low ambient temperatures in northeast China reduce the rate of soil water evaporation. In contrast, white film is more transparent, allowing solar radiation to penetrate easily and reflect off the soil surface, resulting in insufficient heat accumulation and rapid dissipation [9]. This leads to greater temperature fluctuations and accelerated moisture loss. Additionally, the high organic matter content typical of black soil enhances its water-holding capacity [32]. The reduction in photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) under black film may also inhibit microbial activity [33], slowing organic matter decomposition and thereby aiding in the retention of soil pore water [34]. These mechanisms together contribute to the observed increase in soil moisture under black film mulching.

4.2. Soil Temperature Changes Under Different Treatments

In this study, the soil temperature was mainly affected by mulching, while the effect of the irrigation method was not significant (Table 2). The results showed that film mulching increased the soil temperature, which may be attributed to the fact that film mulching blocks the long-wave radiation from the soil to the atmosphere, increases the net radiation at the ground surface, and reduces soil water evaporation, which also decreases soil latent heat [35]. Hu et al. [6] found that the surface soil temperature increased significantly in the early stage of rice growth, but the effect was not obvious in the later stage. This is inconsistent with the results of our study. According to Hu et al. [6], the biodegradable film began to degrade 55 days after mulching, and the integrity of the film decreased rapidly at this time, resulting in the warming effect being concentrated in the early stage of crop growth. However, the lower ambient temperature in the early spring in Heilongjiang delayed the degradation process, allowing the film to maintain high integrity until the late tillering stage (both black and white biodegradable films started to degrade 65 days after mulching, while the late tillering stage began 38 days after mulching), thereby increasing soil temperature. After entering the jointing–booting stage, the air temperature in Heilongjiang increased significantly; although a small part of the degradable film had degraded at this time, its residual fragments and the rice canopy formed a composite thermal insulation layer, which produced a synergistic effect with a natural temperature rise [36], thereby increasing the soil temperature. The soil temperature under black biodegradable film mulching was higher than that under white biodegradable film mulching, which differs from the research results of Mu et al. [12]. In the study area of Mu et al. [12], sunlight exposure was sufficient, and the altitude was relatively high; the effect of direct sunlight on white biodegradable film was much greater than the soil temperature increase caused by heat absorption of black biodegradable film. In contrast, the study site of this research has a lower altitude, where the heat absorption effect of the black biodegradable film is more prominent. Additionally, the paddy field had high soil moisture content and high air humidity; although the white biodegradable film received more direct sunlight, part of the energy was used for evaporating soil water. In this study, the TM treatment showed a trend of increasing temperature with increasing soil depth in the deeper soil layers at the late tillering stage. This may be because during this period, soil water evaporation in the sun-dried field absorbed heat; the deep soil layers were less affected by solar radiation, with weak evaporation and more heat accumulation, thus resulting in higher soil temperature [37].

4.3. IWUE Changes Under Different Treatments

IWUE can reflect the degree of irrigation water utilization by crops. Both film mulching, irrigation, and their interaction had extremely significant effects on IWUE (p < 0.001). Both biodegradable film mulching and water-saving irrigation can improve IWUE. Specifically, water-saving irrigation effectively reduces deep percolation [38]. Under traditional flood irrigation, water is prone to percolate into deep soil layers due to gravity, resulting in severe water loss [39]. In contrast, under water-saving irrigation, since exogenous water is supplemented in small amounts and multiple times, soil moisture content can be precisely controlled to maintain it within the range suitable for crop growth. This irrigation mode effectively reduces the degree of soil water saturation, thereby significantly decreasing the amount of deep percolation [38]. Film mulching not only reduces ineffective water loss through evaporation by inhibiting bare soil evaporation [20] but also promotes the growth and development of rice plants by increasing the soil temperature [40]. This enhances the output capacity per unit of irrigation water, thereby improving IWUE.

4.4. Limitations and Prospects

The experimental period of this study was only one year, so the long-term impact of continuous film mulching over multiple years on the cumulative effects of soil was not explored. The biodegradable film used in this study was made from PBAT as the raw material, which has a relatively high carbon content; thus, its degradation can significantly affect the soil carbon pool [41]. Continuous mulching over multiple years may exert a substantial impact on the soil habitat due to changes in the soil carbon pool, thereby altering rice growth conditions. Therefore, multi-year experiments are required to investigate its impact on the soil–crop system. Secondly, although this study improved IWUE, it did not conduct a systematic economic analysis on the early-stage inputs such as biodegradable film mulching and machinery. In future research, methods like life cycle assessment (LCA) need to be applied for relevant quantitative analysis to better evaluate the comprehensive applicability of biodegradable film in black soil paddy fields. The interaction between mulching, irrigation, the soil layer depth, and growth period only had a significant effect on the soil moisture content (p < 0.001) (Table 2). However, both film mulching and irrigation have extremely significant impacts on all indicators. This indicates that the selection of soil layers and sampling times has non-negligible effects on all indicators. In future studies, it will be necessary to refine the soil layers and sampling times to better demonstrate the impact of film mulching and irrigation treatments on soil water and heat conditions as well as irrigation water use efficiency.

5. Conclusions

Overall, biodegradable film mulching increased the soil moisture content in different soil layers. Under mulching treatments, the soil moisture content in different soil layers with black biodegradable film was 0.16–12.10% higher than that with white biodegradable film, and the improvement effect was the strongest in the 0–5 cm layer. Under the same mulching treatment, controlled irrigation had a more significant effect on the soil moisture content in different soil layers than ridge tillage irrigation before the heading–flowering stage, while the opposite was true during and after the heading–flowering stage. The soil temperature in different soil layers under mulching treatments with biodegradable films of different colors was basically higher than that under non-mulching treatment. Specifically, the soil temperature in the 0–5 cm layer under black biodegradable film mulching was higher, being 0.60–3.72% higher than that under white biodegradable film mulching. However, the effect pattern of mulching with biodegradable films of different colors on the soil temperature in the 5–10 cm and 10–15 cm soil layers were not obvious. The improvement effects of different combinations of biodegradable film mulching and water-saving irrigation on IWUE ranged from 75.00% to 325.00%. Compared with white biodegradable film mulching, black biodegradable film mulching increased IWUE by 13.33–18.10%, and the ridge irrigation increased IWUE by 14.29–28.57% compared with controlled irrigation. This study clarified the spatiotemporal variation patterns of soil water and heat, as well as IWUE, under different biodegradable film mulching and water-saving treatments in paddy fields in the black soil region of northeast China. The results show that the treatment of ridge irrigation combined with black biodegradable film mulching increased the soil temperature and simultaneously achieved the highest IWUE. Therefore, it is recommended to adopt the treatment of ridge tillage irrigation with black biodegradable film mulching in practice to promote the efficient and sustainable utilization of soil water and heat resources in paddy fields in cold regions. The experimental period of this study was only one year, so the long-term effects of continuous film mulching over multiple years on the soil carbon pool and rice growth were not explored, and there was a lack of systematic analysis of economic inputs. In the future, it will be necessary to conduct multi-year experiments and combine LCA methods to comprehensively evaluate the application effects of biodegradable films. The results of this study can provide a theoretical reference for research on water use in paddy field systems.

Author Contributions

Writing—original draft preparation, J.L. (Jizhen Li) and Y.H.; writing—review and editing, J.L. (Jilong Liu); software, Y.W.; investigation, Y.G. and Y.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Service Program Purchased by Government (125A0605), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (52479036) and Key Project of Natural Science Foundation of Heilongjiang Province (ZL2024E004).

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Agriculture 15 01956 g001
Figure 1. Schematic map of the study area.
Figure 1. Schematic map of the study area.
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Agriculture 15 01956 g002
Figure 2. Variations in temperature and precipitation during the rice growing period.
Figure 2. Variations in temperature and precipitation during the rice growing period.
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Figure 3. Soil moisture content at different depths under various treatments. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences between treatments at p < 0.05. Error bars indicate SE. ET, early tillering stage; MT, mid-tillering stage; LT, late tillering stage; JB, jointing–booting stage; HF, heading–flowering stage; MF, milk grain-filling stage.; CK, traditional irrigation and no mulching; DM, ridge irrigation and no mulching; DB, ridge irrigation and black biodegradable film mulching; DW, ridge irrigation and white biodegradable film mulching; TM, controlled irrigation and no mulching; TB, controlled irrigation and black biodegradable film mulching; TW, controlled irrigation and white biodegradable film mulching.
Figure 3. Soil moisture content at different depths under various treatments. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences between treatments at p < 0.05. Error bars indicate SE. ET, early tillering stage; MT, mid-tillering stage; LT, late tillering stage; JB, jointing–booting stage; HF, heading–flowering stage; MF, milk grain-filling stage.; CK, traditional irrigation and no mulching; DM, ridge irrigation and no mulching; DB, ridge irrigation and black biodegradable film mulching; DW, ridge irrigation and white biodegradable film mulching; TM, controlled irrigation and no mulching; TB, controlled irrigation and black biodegradable film mulching; TW, controlled irrigation and white biodegradable film mulching.
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Figure 4. Soil temperature at different depths under various treatments. (a) Soil temperature at the 0–5 cm soil layer under different treatments; (b) Soil temperature at the 5–10 cm soil layer under different treatments; (c) Soil temperature at the 10–15 cm soil layer under different treatments. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences between treatments at p < 0.05. Error bars indicate SE. ET, early tillering stage; MT, mid-tillering stage; LT, late tillering stage; JB, jointing–booting stage; HF, heading–flowering stage; MF, milk grain-filling stage.; CK, traditional irrigation and no mulching; DM, ridge irrigation and no mulching; DB, ridge irrigation and black biodegradable film mulching; DW, ridge irrigation and white biodegradable film mulching; TM, controlled irrigation and no mulching; TB, controlled irrigation and black biodegradable film mulching; TW, controlled irrigation and white biodegradable film mulching.
Figure 4. Soil temperature at different depths under various treatments. (a) Soil temperature at the 0–5 cm soil layer under different treatments; (b) Soil temperature at the 5–10 cm soil layer under different treatments; (c) Soil temperature at the 10–15 cm soil layer under different treatments. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences between treatments at p < 0.05. Error bars indicate SE. ET, early tillering stage; MT, mid-tillering stage; LT, late tillering stage; JB, jointing–booting stage; HF, heading–flowering stage; MF, milk grain-filling stage.; CK, traditional irrigation and no mulching; DM, ridge irrigation and no mulching; DB, ridge irrigation and black biodegradable film mulching; DW, ridge irrigation and white biodegradable film mulching; TM, controlled irrigation and no mulching; TB, controlled irrigation and black biodegradable film mulching; TW, controlled irrigation and white biodegradable film mulching.
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Figure 5. IWUE under different treatments. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences among treatments at p < 0.05. Error bars indicate SE. CK, traditional irrigation and no mulching; DM, ridge irrigation and no mulching; DB, ridge irrigation and black biodegradable film mulching; DW, ridge irrigation and white biodegradable film mulching; TM, controlled irrigation and no mulching; TB, controlled irrigation and black biodegradable film mulching; TW, controlled irrigation and white biodegradable film mulching.
Figure 5. IWUE under different treatments. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences among treatments at p < 0.05. Error bars indicate SE. CK, traditional irrigation and no mulching; DM, ridge irrigation and no mulching; DB, ridge irrigation and black biodegradable film mulching; DW, ridge irrigation and white biodegradable film mulching; TM, controlled irrigation and no mulching; TB, controlled irrigation and black biodegradable film mulching; TW, controlled irrigation and white biodegradable film mulching.
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Table 1. Description of experimental treatments.
Table 1. Description of experimental treatments.
TreatmentIrrigation MethodMulching Type
CKTraditional irrigationNo mulching
DMRidge irrigationNo mulching
DBRidge irrigationBlack biodegradable film
DWRidge irrigationWhite biodegradable film
TMControlled irrigationNo mulching
TBControlled irrigationBlack biodegradable film
TWControlled irrigationWhite biodegradable film
Table 2. The influence degree of different regulatory factors on soil hydrothermal conditions, yield, irrigation water volumes, and IWUE.
Table 2. The influence degree of different regulatory factors on soil hydrothermal conditions, yield, irrigation water volumes, and IWUE.
IndexSDDifference Test StatisticsMulchingIrrigationDepthGrowth StageMulching
× Irrigation
× Depth
× Growth Stage
Soil Moisture Content (%)4.41F150.9251124.9331756.633815.7133.169
P0.001 ***0.001 ***0.001 ***0.001 ***0.001 ***
Soil
Temperature (°C)		2.52F22.4130.99457.366577.5170.303
P0.001 ***0.372 ns0.001 ***0.001 ***0.988 ns
Yield (kg/ha)612.45F2690.1412088.716000
P0.001 ***0.001 ***1 ns1 ns1 ns
Irrigation Water Volumes (m3/ha)2738.63F89.1022445.881000
P0.001 ***0.001 ***1 ns1 ns1 ns
IWUE (kg/m3)0.66F845.228224.427000
P0.001 ***0.001 ***1 ns1 ns1 ns
***, p < 0.001; ns, no significant.
Table 3. Correlation between soil moisture and soil temperature and IWUE.
Table 3. Correlation between soil moisture and soil temperature and IWUE.
ParameterSoil
Moisture
(0–5 cm)		Soil
Moisture
(5–10 cm)		Soil
Moisture
(10–15 cm)		Soil Temp.
(0–5 cm)		Soil Temp.
(5–10 cm)		Soil
Temp.
(10–15 cm)
Indicator
IWUE−0.28−0.38−0.330.83 *0.87 *0.73
*, p < 0.05.
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Li, J.; He, Y.; Liu, J.; Wang, Y.; Guo, Y.; Lu, Y. Effects of Biodegradable Film Mulching and Water-Saving Irrigation on Soil Moisture and Temperature in Paddy Fields of the Black Soil Region. Agriculture 2025, 15, 1956. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15181956

AMA Style

Li J, He Y, Liu J, Wang Y, Guo Y, Lu Y. Effects of Biodegradable Film Mulching and Water-Saving Irrigation on Soil Moisture and Temperature in Paddy Fields of the Black Soil Region. Agriculture. 2025; 15(18):1956. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15181956

Chicago/Turabian Style

Li, Jizhen, Yuning He, Jilong Liu, Yinqi Wang, Yunze Guo, and Yuchen Lu. 2025. "Effects of Biodegradable Film Mulching and Water-Saving Irrigation on Soil Moisture and Temperature in Paddy Fields of the Black Soil Region" Agriculture 15, no. 18: 1956. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15181956

APA Style

Li, J., He, Y., Liu, J., Wang, Y., Guo, Y., & Lu, Y. (2025). Effects of Biodegradable Film Mulching and Water-Saving Irrigation on Soil Moisture and Temperature in Paddy Fields of the Black Soil Region. Agriculture, 15(18), 1956. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15181956

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