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Article

Quantitative Changes in Selected Soil Health Indices as a Result of Long-Term (23-Year) Cultivation of Winter Wheat in Various Crop Rotations: Case Study for Sandy Soil

by
Monika Jakubus
1,* and
Katarzyna Panasiewicz
2
1
Department of Soil Science and Microbiology, Poznan University of Life Sciences, Szydłowska 50, 60-656 Poznań, Poland
2
Department of Agronomy, Poznan University of Life Sciences, Dojazd 11, 60-632 Poznań, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agriculture 2025, 15(13), 1456; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15131456
Submission received: 11 June 2025 / Revised: 29 June 2025 / Accepted: 4 July 2025 / Published: 6 July 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiple Soil Health Assessment Methods for Changing Agricultural Environment)
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Abstract

Perennial monoculture crops are perceived as detrimental to soil health. This study examines this assumption with regard to winter wheat cultivated in crop rotations with varying cereal shares (50%, 75%, and 100%) and under different irrigation regimes. The experiments were established in light, sandy soil and conducted as static trials over 23 years (1997–2020). This study aims to assess the quantitative changes in parameters indicative of soil fertility and health. The amounts of total organic carbon (TOC), humic substance carbon (HSC), total nitrogen (TN), and available forms of N, P, K, and Mg (AN, AP, AK, AMg) were measured. It was found that, regardless of the research year, higher levels of TOC, TN, AP, AK, and AMg were recorded in the soil following winter wheat cultivated in a rotation with a 100% share of cereals. The amounts of the above-mentioned parameters were higher by 10–30%. The effect of crop rotation on the quantitative changes in HSC and AN was not statistically significant, although a decrease in their amounts was noted (by 10%). The reduction in HSC content was accompanied by a decline in the quality of these compounds, as indicated by Q4/6 values, which were significantly higher in plots with sprinkling irrigation and under winter wheat cultivated in rotations with a 100% cereal share; this was evident in both 1997 and 2020. Sprinkling irrigation resulted in lower amounts of TOC, TN, HSC, AN, and AK, but higher levels of AP and AMg. The results directly indicate that the long-term cultivation of winter wheat in rotations with a 100% cereal share in light soils leads to quantitative changes in soil health indices. These changes are generally positive, favorably affecting the health of light soils, in contrast to the effects observed with irrigation.

1. Introduction

Modern agriculture is increasingly aware of the negative environmental consequences resulting from unsustainable cultivation. This is because the sector has a significant impact on the physical, chemical, biological, and ecological properties of soil, such as organic matter content, nutrient availability, soil pH, and microbial activity. As reported by Al-Shammary et al. [1], agronomic management involves several techniques, including tillage practices, nutrient management, crop rotation, irrigation control, and mulching systems. According to the cited authors, these practices have varying impacts on soil functionality, but generally their effects are positive when properly applied. Numerous studies [2,3,4] have shown several environmental benefits resulting from the introduction of diversified crop rotations, the use of organic fertilizers, and reduced tillage or no-tillage management. Such a balanced approach to maintaining soil health is also promoted by the Common Agricultural Policy [5]. However, it should be emphasized that agronomic management interacts with various factors arising from specific natural and economic conditions. Reconciling all correct, yet theoretical, assumptions in practice is difficult, especially in the current situation, when humanity faces increasing demands for food, feed, fiber, and biofuels. These are significant issues, particularly since the agricultural sector intensively interferes with the soil environment, leading to adverse changes such as degradation [6]. To mitigate the effects of intensive agrotechnology and to protect soils, a number of EU programs have been introduced (EU Soil Strategy for 2030, EU 2030 Biodiversity Strategy, the European Climate Law, and Soil Health Law) [7]. These initiatives aim to not only raise awareness of the need to care for soil health, but also to introduce appropriate practices related to sustainable agriculture [6]. According to Shah et al. [8], crop rotation is a useful technique in sustainable agriculture. Many authors [8,9,10,11] highlight numerous benefits of diversified crop rotation, including improved soil health, the maintenance of soil fertility, increased disease resistance, higher crop productivity, reduced agrochemical use, and increased farmers’ income. In the last decade, there has been a trend in agricultural systems toward minimizing tillage and using specialized crop rotations involving two to three crop species that require similar cultivation technologies [12]. In line with this approach, many countries have also seen a noticeable increase in the share of cereals grown in crop rotations [13,14,15].
Among small-grain cereals, wheat plays a particularly important role. Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of the most important crops worldwide, being a staple food for millions of people [16,17]. This species belongs to the grass family and is grown in various regions, from temperate to subtropical zones [18]. Wheat grain is primarily used to produce flour, the main ingredient in many food products such as bread, cakes, and pasta. Thanks to its broad adaptability and significant nutritional importance, wheat remains essential for ensuring food security worldwide. The global area under wheat cultivation currently covers around 220 million hectares, with an annual production of 800 million tonnes. Among cereals, wheat is one of the most widely grown crops, with China, India, the United States, Russia, and the European Union as the largest producers. Since 2000, the production of various species of this genus has increased by 38% [19] Nowadays, the efficiency of cereal yield is controlled primarily by genetic factors and the related introduction of new varieties [20,21]. However, in the production cycle, environmental factors related to soil and climate conditions cannot be ignored [22,23,24,25,26]. In this aspect and in relation to ongoing climate change, the importance of cereal irrigation is increasingly emphasized in addition to proper agricultural technology in order to increase crop yields [27]. As reported by Liu et al. [28], sprinkling irrigation can increase grain yield by up to 52% in years with significant natural rainfall shortages; however, water use must be fully optimized and sustainable [29,30]. At the same time, as indicated by Shah et al. [8] and Reckling et al. [10], the increasing share of cereals in crop rotation may have a negative impact on crop yields. This phenomenon was particularly noted in the case of winter wheat [9,13].
Both crop rotation and long-term irrigation can affect not only yield [9,31,32], but also soil health [2,33,34]. Irrigation management can have both positive and negative effects, including changes in pH, nutrient leaching, soil salinization, erosion, organic matter decomposition, or waterlogging [1,35]. Crop rotation is also considered to have a dual effect on soil condition; however, cereal monoculture has a much stronger negative impact [1,2,33,36]. A decline in biodiversity, the emergence of new pathogens, or increased disease pressure is particularly noticeable, especially in perennial cereal crops [37,38,39]. It should be emphasized that the effects of such impacts are best observed and reliably assessed in long-term field experiments [10,36,39,40]. The first symptoms indicating negative, degradative changes include the loss of organic matter and, consequently, a reduction in organic carbon content. It is also worth noting that all negative changes are more evident in light, sandy soils. Sandy soils are recognized as less healthy and less fertile, primarily due to their natural characteristics, particularly their low organic matter content, which determines the physicochemical and chemical properties of soils. As a result, sandy soils have limitations for plant cultivation. Additionally, it must be considered that the close relationship between low organic matter content, low clay content, and a large volume of macropores results in the low water retention capacity of sandy soils [41]. Water availability is the main constraint to crop production and must be managed, typically through irrigation.
Soil organic carbon is considered the most important indicator of soil health and it plays a fundamental role in both theoretical and practical evaluations of soil quality. According to Lehmann et al. [42], the terminology of soil health is still evolving, but several related concepts exist, including soil fertility, soil quality, and soil security. Generally, soil health functions as a vital living ecosystem that sustains plants, animals, and humans. Currently, the quantification of soil health is based on the multifunctionality of soil ecosystem services and requires multiple indicators. The authors cited above propose a holistic approach to soil health, indicating a large group of soil indicators that allow, to varying extents, the assessment of ecosystem services. Among them, the content of total organic carbon (TOC), as well as soil pH, the bioavailability of nutrients, and nitrogen mineralization, are of particular importance [6].
According to the authors of this study, the quantity and quality of humic substances are integrally related to TOC content. In studies evaluating soil health, this aspect of the analysis is often omitted, which should be considered inappropriate. So far, only the importance of organic matter fractions in shaping soil physical quality has been emphasized [43]. Humic substances are an important component of organic matter and, as an integral part of soil organic colloids, perform critical functions in soil formation and physical, chemical, biological, and environmental processes [44]. It is well known that land use strongly affects soil properties, especially the quantity and quality of organic matter; therefore, such influence is likely to be noticeable in qualitative and quantitative changes in humic substances. Among the various agricultural management practices, Ratke et al. [41] proved that soil carbon fractions were more influenced by crop rotation. Therefore, considering the above facts, it is essential to conduct research in this direction to assess potential changes in humic compounds.
Humic substances are the most recalcitrant and highly polymerized complex mixtures of molecules of various sizes and shapes. They are heterogeneous macromolecules that can be divided into three fractions, humins, humic acids (HAs), and fulvic acids (FAs), which are highly reactive and recalcitrant compounds [45]. Regarding solubility, HAs are soluble in alkali and insoluble in acid solutions, FAs are extractable in both alkali and acid conditions, while humins are insoluble in both. Depending on their solubility, individual fractions of humus compounds are characterized by different mobility along the soil profile and influence nutrient availability and microorganism activation. FAs and HAs differ particularly in their ability to form complexes with soil mineral components. Fulvic acids have a simpler structure than HAs and a greater affinity for forming such complexes. On the other hand, HAs improve soil buffering, sorption properties, and available water capacity, playing a special role in shaping soil fertility by regulating nutrient availability [6].
To date, research has primarily focused on evaluating the effects of an increased share of cereals in crop rotation on the quantity and quality of biomass yield [9,11,12,13,46]. However, there is a noticeable lack of data on the long-term changes in soil health resulting from the combined influence of different crop rotations and sprinkler irrigation. This knowledge gap has been filled by the presented results within the framework of a long-term, static field experiment conducted on sandy soil. At this point it should be emphasized that long-term field experiments are increasingly rarely conducted. Therefore, the presented results from multi-year research should be considered valuable and unique, because they provide in-depth practical knowledge and, as such, they are credible and reliable. This is of particular importance in the analysis of soil parameters, which are subject to changes under the influence of both biotic and abiotic factors. Additionally, a particularly innovative and knowledge-expanding aspect of this research is provided by the comprehensive analysis of how agrotechnical factors influence selected soil health indicators in winter wheat cultivation, including parameters that are less commonly and routinely studied such as the quantity and quality of humic substances, as well as nutrient bioavailability. This approach facilitates a thorough assessment of the changes in soil chemical properties. In this context, the specific objectives of this study are as follows: 1. to determine the effect of an increasing share of cereals in crop rotation and irrigation management on the quantitative changes in selected sandy soil health indices such as pH, TOC, TN, and the amounts of available macronutrients for plants; 2. to demonstrate the significance and role of the same agrotechnical factors used for 23 years in shaping the quantity and quality of humic substances.
Based on these objectives, we hypothesize that: 1. An increasing share of winter wheat in crop rotation and irrigation management will affect the quantitative variability in soil parameters. 2. The long-term use of different crop rotations, depending on irrigation management, will facilitate an assessment of the effects of these practices on maintaining soil health.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experimental Design

Field experiments on winter wheat were conducted from 1997 to 2020 at the Gorzyń Experimental and Educational Station, the Poznań University of Life Sciences (52°29′0″ N, 16°49′53″ E) in the Wielkopolska region, Poland. The experiments were carried out on soils classified as Haplic Luvisols according to the IUSS Working Group WRB [47].
The static field experiments were established in 1997 using a complete randomized block design (split plot) with four replications. The crop rotation with 50% cereals (CRI) in a four-field system included sugar beet, spring triticale, field pea, and winter wheat (from 2000 to 2010), followed by soybean, oilseed rape, winter wheat, and spring triticale (from 2011 to 2020). Crop rotations with 75% cereals (CRII) included white lupine, maize, winter wheat, and winter triticale, with winter wheat grown after maize. The cereal rotation with 100% cereals (CRIII) consisted of winter wheat grown after winter rye in a four-field rotation with winter rye, winter wheat, oats, and spring triticale. The weather conditions, indicated by the mean annual temperature and total annual precipitation during the experiment, are shown in Figure 1. During the analyzed research period, varied weather conditions were recorded. The total precipitation ranged from 335.9 mm in 2003 to 774.8 mm in 2010. The most favorable years for winter wheat cultivation were those with a total precipitation exceeding 600 mm (1998, 2002, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2016, and 2017), while the greatest water deficits, including prolonged droughts, occurred in 2003 (335.9 mm), 2018 (360.1 mm), and 2006 (391.8 mm). Similar variation was observed in average air temperature, which ranged from 8.5 °C in 2010 to 11.5 °C in 2000. The year 2010 was characterized by the most extreme weather conditions, with the highest total precipitation and the lowest mean air temperature occurring simultaneously.
Prior to sowing wheat, phosphorus fertilizer was applied at a rate of 80 kg P2O5·ha−1 as superphosphate, and potassium fertilizer was applied at a rate of 100 kg K2O·ha−1 as potassium salt. Nitrogen fertilizer was applied as ammonium nitrate (34% N) at a total rate of 100 kg N·ha−1, split into two applications: 50 kg N·ha−1 before sowing and 50 kg N·ha−1 at the tillering stage (BBCH 21). Additionally, magnesium fertilizer was applied at a rate of 40 kg Mg·ha−1 in the form of magnesium sulfate. No organic additives were used throughout the entire duration of the experiment. This eliminated any potential carbon influx that could have disturbed the soil carbon levels in the static experiment, thereby preventing incorrect data interpretation.
The other cultivation operations were performed according to standard cereal agronomic practices. Winter wheat in each crop rotation was cultivated using conventional tillage, including a full sequence of post-harvest tillage, winter plowing, and pre-sowing seedbed preparation.
The second key factor in the experiment was sprinkler irrigation, applied at two levels: no irrigation (N-IR) and irrigation (IR). At the start of the experiment, the irrigated sub-block area was 576 m2 (24 m × 24 m), and the non-irrigated sub-block area was 288 m2 (12 m × 24 m). The size of the irrigated plots was determined by the radius of the sprinkler. A 6 m wide isolation strip separated the irrigated and non-irrigated blocks. Irrigation was applied based on maintaining optimal soil moisture [48]. This involved irrigating whenever soil moisture decreased to 70% of field water capacity (FWC), from the wheat stalk shooting stage to wax maturity. Soil moisture was determined using the drying–weighing method at ten-day intervals. The amounts of water used for sprinkler irrigation in each year of the study were 80, 80, 40, 160, 100, 90, 120, 60, 120, 150, 140, 120, 35, 30, 165, 120, 60, 30, 120, 70, 40, 95, 70, and 175 mm, respectively. Irrigation of the experimental fields was carried out using a semi-permanent sprinkler system with permanently installed pipelines and a pumping unit. Surface pipelines and sprinklers were portable and deployed during the growing season. Water from the pond, which is part of the Samica River, was used for sprinkler irrigation. The chemical composition of the water from the local pond used for irrigation is presented in Table 1.

2.2. Soil Sampling

Soil samples were collected after the harvest of winter wheat in each of the crop rotations under investigation. Sampling was performed in the same manner and from the same locations in both 1997 and 2020. Samples were taken separately from each plot using a soil auger from the 0–25 cm soil layer, following a consistent sampling scheme. The procedure involved collecting 8 to 10 individual soil cores per plot, which were then thoroughly mixed to form a representative composite sample for laboratory analyses.
Before analysis, the samples were air-dried and sieved through a 2 mm mesh. For the analysis of ammonium nitrogen (NH4-N), samples were used at a natural moisture content. Since winter wheat was the dominant crop in all the rotations, its presence was considered to play a significant and determining role in influencing soil chemistry, as reflected by the changes in the soil health indices.
Soil samples were collected prior to the harvest of winter wheat grown in three crop rotations with cereal shares of 50%, 75%, and 100%, from both non-irrigated plots with natural soil moisture and irrigated plots maintained at optimal soil moisture (70% of field water capacity, FWC).

2.3. Methods

To obtain comparable results from the agrochemical analysis of soil samples, the same methods were used as 23 years ago. Soil reaction (pH) was measured in a 1 mol∙L−1 KCl solution using a pH meter equipped with a glass electrode. Total organic carbon (TOC) content was determined by wet combustion using the Walkley–Black procedure, while total nitrogen (TN) was evaluated by the micro-Kjeldahl method [49]. For humus fractionation, the method proposed by Kononova and Bielczikova [50] was applied. According to this protocol, humic substances (HSs) were extracted using a mixture of 0.1 mol∙L−1 Na4P2O7 and 0.1 mol∙L−1 NaOH solution. The obtained HS extracts were then divided into two parts: one part was used to determine the carbon content of humic substances, and the other was used to separate fulvic acids from humic acids by precipitating humic acids at pH 1.5. The precipitated humic acids were discarded and the carbon content of fulvic acids (CFA) was determined in the supernatant. The carbon content of humic substances (HSC) was assayed using the same method. In both cases carbon was oxidized by 0.1 mol∙L−1 KMnO4 in an H2SO4 medium. The carbon content of humic acids (CHA) was calculated by subtracting CFA from HSC. The optical density ratio (Q4/6) of the HS extracts was measured at wavelengths of 465 nm and 665 nm.
Available nitrogen (AN) was determined using the Keeney and Nelson procedure [51], involving steam distillation of soil extracts prepared in a 2 mol∙L−1 KCl solution at a soil-to-solution mass-to-volume ratio of 1:10. The distillates were then titrated to the endpoint with 0.1 mol∙L−1 HCl. This method allows the simultaneous determination of mineral nitrogen as the sum of ammonium nitrogen (N-NH4) and nitrate nitrogen (N-NO3).
The Egner–Riehm extraction method, widely used in the 1990s, was employed to determine available phosphorus (AP) and potassium (AK) [52]. This method enables the simultaneous extraction of both macronutrients using a calcium lactate solution at a soil-to-solution mass-to-volume ratio of 1:5. The concentration of AP in the soil extracts was determined colorimetrically by measuring the intensity of the phosphomolybdate blue complex, which forms when orthophosphate ions react in an acidic medium in the presence of photorex and stannous chloride (SnCl2) as a reducing agent. The color intensity was measured with a Cary 60 UV–Vis colorimeter at a wavelength of 670 nm. Available potassium (AK) concentration was determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS) using a Varian Spectra AA 220 FS instrument. The same protocol was applied to determine available magnesium (AMg) in solutions obtained after extraction with 0.0125 mol∙L−1 CaCl2. This simple method, proposed by Schachtschabel, extracts available magnesium at a soil-to-solution mass-to-volume ratio of 1:10 [52].

2.4. Statistical Analysis

A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to determine whether soil indices varied according to the years of study (factor A), crop rotations (factor B), and irrigation management (factor C). The calculated F statistics for the analyzed parameters were FA = 4.1, FB = 3.26, and FC = 3.26. The null hypothesis tested whether the mean values of the examined parameters were equal across all years, crop rotations, and irrigation treatments, against the alternative hypothesis that not all means are equal. Upon rejection of the null hypothesis, least significant differences were calculated using Tukey’s method at a significance level of α = 0.05. Tukey’s analysis was performed to identify homogeneous groups among the analyzed parameters. Means were compared, with p-values below 0.05 indicating significant differences, which were further characterized using Tukey’s honestly significant difference (HSD) test. Homogeneous groups are indicated by the same letters. Data analysis was carried out using the STATOBL software running on Windows 10.

3. Results

3.1. Impact of Experimental Factors on pH, TOC, TN, HSC, and Q4/6 Values

In this study, the changes in pH values were also assessed in relation to the potential impact of crop rotation and irrigation, as shown in Figure 2. The long-term experiment revealed that crop rotation had a more pronounced effect on pH changes than irrigation. Under natural precipitation conditions, soil pH values remained consistent between the study years, whereas sprinkling irrigation resulted in a slight, yet statistically significant, decrease in pH, from 6.2 in 1997 to 6.0 in 2020. It is worth noting that although the pH of the irrigation water was higher (7.3) (Table 1), it did not lead to an increase in soil pH. The decrease in pH is also reflected in the data obtained for crop rotations with 75% and 100% cereal shares. In 2020 the soil pH was 5.7 (CRII) and 5.8 (CRIII), compared with 5.9 and 6.2 in 1997, respectively. In contrast, for the soil under the 50% cereal crop rotation, the pH increased from 5.9 in 1997 to 6.1 in 2020 (Figure 2).
The amounts of total organic carbon (TOC), total nitrogen (TN), and humic substance carbon (HSC) were influenced by the experimental factors (Table 2). The strongest effect was observed for TOC. In non-irrigated plots an increase in TOC was noted, which was statistically significant in soil samples from 2020. Compared with 1997, the average TOC content in 2020 increased by 52% in non-irrigated plots and by 29% in irrigated plots. The increased share of cereals in the crop rotation also significantly affected quantitative changes in this soil health indicator. The highest TOC amounts were found where winter wheat was grown in a rotation with 100% cereals, both in 1997 and 2020. On average, the TOC content increased by 29% in 1997 and 17% in 2020. Specifically, the soil under 100% cereal rotation showed a 30% higher TOC content after 23 years of consistent agrotechnical management (Table 2).
When comparing TOC changes over the study period with respect to irrigation, TOC increased by 52% and 30% in 2020 in relation to 1997 in non-irrigated and irrigated plots, respectively. Regardless of the year, soils with winter wheat cultivated in 100% cereal rotations contained higher TOC levels—on average 29% higher in 1997 and 17% higher in 2020—than soils under CRI (50% cereals). Notably, soil from crop rotation II (75% cereals) in 2020 had a 53% higher TOC content than in 1997 (Table 2).
The quantitative changes in total nitrogen (TN) due to irrigation were not significant. However, an increasing share of winter wheat in the crop rotation had a stronger impact on the TN amounts in 1997, with soil from CRIII containing 13% more TN than soil from CRI. Although the differences between the TN values in soils from CRI and CRIII remained significant in 2020, the quantitative difference was less pronounced. Overall, the TN contents showed minor changes over the study period and remained comparable. An exception was observed in crop rotation II, where TN contents slightly increased from 0.60 g·kg−1 in 1997 to 0.66 g·kg−1 in 2020. Additionally, the absence of irrigation over 23 years contributed to a slight increase in TN from 0.64 g·kg−1 to 0.67 g·kg−1 (Table 2).
The amounts of humic substance carbon (HSC) underwent quantitative changes that were more strongly influenced by irrigation management (Table 2). Regardless of the year of study, the CHS contents were higher in non-irrigated soils—by 18% in 1997 and by 17% in 2020. However, when comparing data across the years, a reduction in CHS amounts is evident. Independently of irrigation, the CHS levels in 2020 were 11% lower than those measured in 1997. Crop rotation did not cause any major changes in humic substance carbon content, with values remaining comparable and not significantly different from each other. Comparing the years, the greatest reduction in the CHS amounts was observed in soil under crop rotation I (CRI), with a 15% decrease, while the smallest reduction (7%) occurred in soils where winter wheat was cultivated in rotation with 100% cereals (CRIII) (Table 2).
The Q4/6 values were higher in soils where winter wheat was grown in 100% cereal rotations and in irrigated plots, regardless of the year of study. The soils from 2020 were characterized by lower Q4/6 values, which appeared to be independent of the applied agrotechnical factors (Table 2).
As shown in Figure 3, regardless of the experimental factors, lower amounts of fulvic acid carbon (CFA) were recorded in the soil from 2020 compared with 1997. In soils from CRI and CRII, CFA levels were 20% and 9% lower, respectively. In the case of the soil under winter wheat cultivated in rotation with 100% cereals (CRIII), CFA amounts did not differ significantly, ranging from 1038.8 mg·kg−1 in 2020 to 1052.5 mg·kg−1 in 1997. A reduction in CFA amounts was also observed regardless of irrigation. In non-irrigated soils, the CFA content in 2020 was 13% lower than in 1997. A similar trend was seen in irrigated plots, although the decrease was smaller, with an 8% reduction in CFA amounts. Significant differences in the CFA content were found in the soils from 2020. Notably, the CFA amounts in CRIII soil were 18% higher than those in CRI soil. Regardless of crop rotation, the cultivation of winter wheat under natural precipitation favored CFA accumulation, resulting in 19% and 13% higher CFA contents compared with irrigated plots in 1997 and 2020, respectively (Figure 3).
According to the data presented in Figure 4, the influence of the experimental factors on the quantitative changes in humic acid carbon (CHA) was not statistically significant, although some trends can be observed. Overall, CHA amounts decreased over the study period, with the greatest reduction noted in CRIII soil (a decrease of 89 mg·kg−1) and in irrigated plots (a reduction of 78 mg·kg−1). Irrigation contributed to a decline in CHA contents compared with conditions with natural precipitation. Similarly, an increasing share of winter wheat in the crop rotation led to a gradual decrease in CHA amounts in the soil (Figure 4).

3.2. Macronutrient Availability Under Long-Term Agrotechnical Conditions

Our results showed that crop rotation had no significant effect on available nitrogen (AN) content, with values remaining comparable across the treatments (Table 3). AN ranged from 14.39 mg·kg−1 (CRIII, 1997) to 17.0 mg·kg−1 (CRI, 2020). Sprinkling irrigation caused a reduction in AN amount, resulting in 30% and 42% higher AN amounts in non-irrigated treatments in 1997 and 2020, respectively. The available nitrogen amounts in the soils from 1997 and 2020 were comparable and did not differ significantly, ranging from 13.41 mg·kg−1 (IR, 2020) to 19.16 mg·kg−1 (N-IR, 2020) (Table 3).
The available phosphorus (AP) contents in the soil were influenced by irrigation, which increased nutrient levels by an average of 7% in 1997 and 14% in 2020. Crop rotation also caused quantitative changes in phosphorous availability. Compared with CRI soils, winter wheat cultivated in rotation with 100% cereals showed increases in AP of 27% and 9% in 1997 and 2020, respectively. Comparing the study years, the mean AP amounts in 2020 were 24%, 25%, and 44% higher in soils from CRIII, CRII, and CRI, respectively (Table 3).
Crop rotation did not significantly affect available potassium (AK) in 2020, with the nutrient levels ranging from 172.67 mg·kg−1 (CRI) to 192.87 mg·kg−1 (CRII) (Table 3). However, in 1997 the effect of crop rotation was evident: an increasing cereal share led to higher AK amounts, with CRIII soils containing 53% more potassium than CRI soils. Irrigation significantly influenced AK levels during the study period, resulting in 13% and 27% higher AK amounts in 1997 and 2020, respectively, compared with non-irrigated soils. Over the 23-year period, soils from CRI and CRII in 2020 exhibited 45% and 61% higher AK contents, respectively, than in 1997. The AK levels in the soils with 100% cereals did not differ significantly between the years, averaging 174.2 mg·kg−1 (2020) and 181.8 mg·kg−1 (1997) (Table 3).
The influence of the experimental factors on the available magnesium (AMg) amounts was less pronounced. In 1997 the irrigated soils had 20% higher AMg contents than non-irrigated soils. After 23 years no significant differences were found, with AMg amounts of 71.21 mg·kg−1 (N-IR) and 71.34 mg·kg−1 (IR). In 2020 the AMg amounts were 20% higher in soils under natural precipitation compared with 1997. Crop rotation had a weaker effect on AMg quantitative changes; although AMg amounts in CRIII soils were statistically higher than in CRI soils, the differences were small, amounting to 6% in 1997 and 11% in 2020 (Table 3). Over 23 years’ cultivation of winter wheat with a 75% or 100% cereal share in crop rotation resulted in statistically significant, but moderate, increases in AMg contents, with CRII and CRIII soils showing 10% higher AMg amounts in 2020 compared with 1997 (Table 3).

4. Discussion

Crop rotation is considered to be one of the key practices for increasing soil organic carbon (SOC). In a review paper Audette et al. [53] emphasized the importance of crop rotation not only in stimulating a diverse microbial community and rhizodeposits, but also in providing a higher amount of labile carbon, particularly O-alkyl C structures. This effect is especially pronounced in soils under legume-based rotations. The authors strongly highlight that the selection of plants in the crop rotation significantly modifies SOC quality, with rotations dominated by cereals resulting in the poorest quality SOC. Our research did not focus on analyzing the structure of SOC, but rather on assessing the variability of total organic carbon (TOC) levels in soil over multiple years, depending on the proportion of cereals in the crop rotation. Regardless of the scale and scope of the studies conducted, our results do not confirm the findings reported in the literature. In this study we found that cultivating winter wheat in rotations with the highest share of cereals led to greater TOC accumulation in the soil compared with rotations with a lower share of cereals (50% and 75%). This possibility is supported by the studies of Maillard et al. [54], who also observed SOC accumulation under wheat systems, attributing it to larger plant biomass carbon inputs. In our study the amount of residual plant biomass and its impact on SOC formation were not analyzed. However, this factor cannot be ignored when interpreting our results, especially since the literature strongly emphasizes its importance [55,56]. The cited authors noted that belowground biomass can be up to five times more important than aboveground biomass in SOC formation efficiency. Zhang and Wang [57], based on a global survey, found that fine roots decompose significantly faster than coarse roots in mid-latitude areas (defined as >30° N or S, which includes Poland). According to those authors, fine root decomposition represents a substantial carbon resource for plants and serves as a potential soil carbon source. Winter wheat, a member of the Poaceae family, is characterized by a fibrous root system with a large mass of fine roots [18]. Torma et al. [58] reported that wheat leaves have the largest mass of root residues among cereals. As a result, significant amounts of N, P, and K accumulate in the biomass and remain in the soil as root residues after harvest. Based on calculations the cited authors estimated that winter wheat leaves more macronutrients in the soil after harvest than potatoes or maize. These findings are consistent with our results, as we observed higher amounts of available N, P, K, and Mg in soils under winter wheat cultivated in 100% cereal rotations. Neugschwandtner et al. [59] investigated the long-term effects of tillage, crop rotation, and soil depth on the quantitative profiles of C, N, P, K, and Mg. They found higher concentrations of K and Mg in the upper soil layer and an uneven distribution of P. Those authors suggested two possible causes: accumulation through plant residues and accumulation from unused fertilizers. This may also explain our findings, although we did not conduct nutrient balance calculations at the field level, so this possibility cannot be excluded.
An important property influencing nutrient availability is connected to soil pH, which should be considered when interpreting data on macronutrient availability and their uptake by plants. Soil pH is fundamental to soil health, affecting nutrient absorption, biogeochemical cycles, and the regularity of chemical and microbiological processes. Soil reaction is not stable; pH generally decreases, leading to acidification during the growing season. This natural process results from microbial activity, biochemical changes, the acidification of the rhizosphere due to nutrient uptake by roots, or the leaching of alkaline cations. Irrigation and the presence of a larger mass of fine wheat roots can also contribute to soil acidification and lower pH. Although, as noted by Barrow and Hartemink [60], the effects of pH on nutrient availability are complex and varied; such impacts should be considered for both soils and plants. Generally, they indicate that as soil pH increases, nutrient availability rises, but plant uptake decreases, particularly for N and P, while a higher pH favors K and Mg uptake. These assumptions are useful when interpreting our results. In 1997 the highest pH (6.2) was recorded in CRIII, which corresponded to significantly higher available P (160.94 mg·kg−1 vs. 126.89 mg·kg−1 in CRI soil with pH 5.9) (Table 3, Figure 2). In 2020 soil pH decreased in CRII and CRIII, but increased in CRI, resulting in a larger pool of theoretically available nutrients for plants. A similar trend was observed for available K and Mg.
According to Barrow and Hartemink [60], such conditions should theoretically decrease nutrient amounts due to greater plant uptake. However, this aspect was not analyzed in our study, making precise estimation difficult. Another key issue is soil reaction. Despite significant differences, pH values were generally comparable and differed only slightly among the field treatments. It is possible that the decrease in soil pH in 2020 compared with 1997 led to a significant increase in available nutrients, possibly due to increased release from natural sources and/or the dissolution of applied mineral fertilizers. Although the relationship between pH, nutrient availability, and plant uptake is well documented, our study did not confirm or statistically prove these relationships (simple correlation values were not statistically significant and are not presented here).
Another aspect to consider is the effect of irrigation management on soil health. The effect of long-term irrigation on soil chemistry is poorly understood and insufficiently discussed in the literature, therefore our study addresses this significant knowledge gap in the field of soil chemistry and agriculture. Our research indicates that long-term irrigation increased the available P (in 1997 and 2020) and Mg (in 1997) in the soil. However, irrigation was not favorable for N, K, humic substance carbon (HSC), and TOC, as it led to decreases in these parameters. A reduction in HSC amounts due to long-term irrigation with mineralized water was also reported by Bidnyna et al. [61]. The increased mineralization of soil organic matter (SOM) as a result of intensive cultivation (conventional tillage in this study) and sprinkling irrigation cannot be ruled out. Under such conditions, losses of TOC and HSC, as well as mineral forms of nitrogen may occur, with possible further losses through volatilization (as N2, NH3), or the leaching of mobile nitrogen compounds such as NO3 or dissolved organic nitrogen [62]. Sandy soils are particularly prone to such changes and, consequently, to potential N losses. In the present study, quantitative changes in TN and AN were not statistically confirmed, although a clear downward trend for the amount of nitrogen mineral forms was visible. As reported by Cordeiro et al. [63], the low soil N content also limits the formation of HS and the stabilization of organic matter. The storage of HS in soil is also limited by a low content of clay minerals, which is characteristic of sandy soils [64]. It can be assumed that regular irrigation, especially in the case of sandy soil conditions, may contribute to the movement of mineral particles, and thus lead to the depletion and deterioration of conditions for the formation of HS, which was indirectly demonstrated in the present study.
Regarding the unfavorable decrease in HSC amounts, one of the most important soil health indicators, attention should be paid to Q4/6 values, which were higher in irrigated plots and under winter wheat cultivated in the highest cereal share rotations. The Q4/6 ratio is negatively related to the degree of aromatic polycondensation and the molecular weight of humic substances. High Q4/6 values indicate the presence of low molecular weight aromatic molecules, while low Q4/6 values suggest high contents of large molecular weight molecules, such as humic-like compounds typically present in well-matured organic materials [6,65]. In the study period Q4/6 values decreased, indicating favorable changes in the quality of soil humus compounds.
Bidnyna et al. [61], in a publication cited earlier, observed an effect of long-term irrigation on an increase in N, P, and K levels in soils, a finding which is not confirmed by our experiment. The quantitative changes in macronutrients could be attributed either to the chemical composition of the irrigation water, or to the release of nutrients from mineral fertilizers. The higher amounts of P and Mg observed in our experiment can only partially be explained by the composition of the pond water used (Table 1), as the amounts of P and Mg in the water were relatively small. Therefore, a greater influence of the applied mineral fertilizers might be expected. Phosphorus and magnesium fertilizers are not as quickly and readily soluble as nitrogen or potassium fertilizers; thus, maintaining constant, optimal moisture through irrigation could enhance their dissolution and release nutrients in forms more readily available to plants. Another possible explanation for the demonstrated phenomenon may be provided by the reports contained in a paper by Eriksen et al. [66]. The cited authors showed that root exudates also influence P availability in soil either by solubilizing inorganic P via carboxylates and protons/hydroxyls, or by hydrolyzing organic P via phosphatases. Certainly, the conditions of constant and proper hydration maintained in the irrigated facilities in our experiment could favor such phenomena, resulting in a greater amount of P available to plants.
Nitrogen and potassium can be supplied through readily soluble fertilizers and are mobile and easily transferred into the soil profile, especially in light and sandy soils. Additionally, for potassium the mineral composition of the soil is important, as it determines the geochemical background of this element. Heavy soils contain more clay minerals (a source of K) and thus more potassium, while light soils with less clay have a lower natural content of this element [64].
In the context of the results presented above, the regular irrigation of sandy soils should be extensively verified and adapted to maintain HS, as well as the amounts of macronutrients available to plants. The susceptibility of sandy soil to soil erosion, damage to the structure and deterioration of air conditions, or the potential leaching of nutrients should be considered here. At this point, it is necessary to emphasize the importance and usefulness of long-term field experiments, which facilitate the observation of changes in quantitative soil health indices. This is important, because soil, as a multifunctional and integral element of the environment, is a heterogeneous matrix and the parameters describing it are subject to a number of factors that can lead to different rates and directions of changes in quantitative soil properties. Thanks to the long-term, static experiments, we reliably and multidimensionally evaluated such changes, while at the same time reliably verified the hypotheses put forward in the study. In conclusion, the impact of the experimental factors on the quantitative changes in selected soil health parameters was varied, with the increasing share of winter wheat in the crop rotation having a preservative effect expressed by the accumulation of TOC, TN, AP, and AMg, while irrigation led to soil depletion in TOC, HSC, AN, and AK. The obtained results confirm our hypotheses that the quantitative variability of soil parameters depends on an increasing share of cereals in crop rotation and irrigation management, with these agricultural factors having a significant influence on soil health.

5. Conclusions

The experiment conducted over 23 years on sandy soil with varying proportions of winter wheat in the crop rotation (50%, 75%, and 100%) did not fully confirm the expected benefits of either a high share of cereal crops in the rotation, or the use of irrigation in the context of sandy soil health. The long-term cultivation of winter wheat at different shares in the rotation contributed to an increase in the amounts of total organic carbon, total nitrogen, and the available forms of phosphorus, potassium, and magnesium. However, key soil health indicators, such as the amounts of humic substance carbon and available nitrogen, tended to decrease with an increase in the share of winter wheat in the crop rotation. This trend was observed in soil samples from both 1997 and 2020. This study provided novel insights into the quantitative and qualitative changes in humic substances. Cultivating winter wheat in rotations with a higher proportion of cereals in sandy soil, similarly to irrigation, led to a deterioration in the quality of humic substances, characterized by a dominance of low-molecular-weight fulvic acid compounds that are easily transformed. Generally, irrigation is viewed as a positive factor, because it primarily aims to meet plant water needs, while less attention is given to the accompanying quantitative changes in individual soil parameters. This study fills that gap by highlighting the specific impact of water management on soil health. Continuously irrigated soils were characterized by lower amounts of TOC, TN, AN, AK, and HSC compared with non-irrigated plots.
Winter wheat, as a staple crop in the human diet, is grown over large areas and with the increasing global population and changing consumer preferences, this area may expand further in the future. Therefore, the research goals and hypotheses included in this study were justified and provided a clear answer: winter wheat cultivation in crop rotations alters soil health indices, generally in a positive way. However, it is important to remember that these changes were observed in sandy soils under specific climatic and agrotechnical conditions. At the same time, the practice of continuous, long-term soil irrigation should be approached more critically and cautiously, especially considering the observed quantitative reductions in key soil health indicators such as TOC, HSC, TN, and AN in the field experiment.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.J. and K.P.; methodology, M.J.; software, M.J.; validation, M.J. and K.P.; formal analysis, M.J.; investigation, M.J. and K.P.; resources, K.P.; data curation, M.J.; writing—original draft preparation, M.J. and K.P.; writing—review and editing, M.J. and K.P.; visualization, M.J.; supervision, K.P.; project administration, K.P.; funding acquisition, M.J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

All data are included in this article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. The mean temperature and sum of precipitation for individual years of conducted experiment.
Figure 1. The mean temperature and sum of precipitation for individual years of conducted experiment.
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Figure 2. The influence of crop rotation (A) and irrigation management (B) on soil pH values in the years of study. Homogeneous groups are indicated by the same letters.
Figure 2. The influence of crop rotation (A) and irrigation management (B) on soil pH values in the years of study. Homogeneous groups are indicated by the same letters.
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Figure 3. The influence of crop rotation (A) and water variant (B) on FA amounts in the years of study. Homogeneous groups are indicated by the same letters.
Figure 3. The influence of crop rotation (A) and water variant (B) on FA amounts in the years of study. Homogeneous groups are indicated by the same letters.
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Figure 4. The influence of crop rotation (A) and water variant (B) on HA amounts in the years of study. Homogeneous groups are indicated by the same letters.
Figure 4. The influence of crop rotation (A) and water variant (B) on HA amounts in the years of study. Homogeneous groups are indicated by the same letters.
Agriculture 15 01456 g004
Table 1. Chemical composition of water used for sprinkling irrigation in the experiment.
Table 1. Chemical composition of water used for sprinkling irrigation in the experiment.
ParameterValue
pH7.3
EC0.94 mS
N-NO31 mg·dm−3
P1 mg·dm−3
K12 mg·dm−3
Ca92 mg·dm−3
Mg27 mg·dm−3
Table 2. Changes in total nitrogen (TN), total organic carbon (TOC), and humic substances (HSC) in soil depending on agrotechnical factors.
Table 2. Changes in total nitrogen (TN), total organic carbon (TOC), and humic substances (HSC) in soil depending on agrotechnical factors.
Year of ExperimentCR/% Share of CerealsNon-Irrigated (N-IR)Irrigated (IR)Mean for Crop
Rotation
TOC (g·kg−1)
1997I-505.67 d5.53 d5.60 c
II-755.81 d5.52 d5.66 c
III-1007.33 c7.15 c7.23 b
Mean for irrigation management 6.27 c6.06 c
2020I-508.19 bc7.74 c7.97 b
II-759.22 b8.30 bc8.76 a
III-10011.22 a7.52 c9.37 a
Mean for irrigation management 9.55 a7.85 b
TN (g·kg−1)
1997I-500.60 e0.66 bc0.63 cd
II-750.60 e0.60 e0.60 d
III-1000.72 a0.71 ab0.71 a
Mean for irrigation management 0.64 b0.66 ab
2020I-500.67 abc0.62 de0.65 c
II-750.67 bc0.64 cd0.66 bc
III-1000.68 ab0.68 ab0.68 ab
Mean for irrigation management 0.67 a0.65 ab
         HSC (mg·kg−1)
1997I-501782.5 a1480.0 d1631.25 a
II-751735.5 a1486.25 cd1610.88 a
III-1001689.25 ab1435.0 de1562.13 a
Mean for irrigation management 1735.75 a1467.08 c
2020I-501446.25 d1341.25 ef1393.75 b
II-751586.25 bc1278.75 f1432.50 b
III-1001597.50 bc1321.25 e1459.38 b
Mean for irrigation management 1543.33 b1313.75 d
        Q4/6
1997I-503.96 cd5.29 ab4.62 bc
II-753.93 cd5.37 a4.65 b
III-1004.63 bc5.78 a5.20 a
Mean for irrigation management 4.17 b5.48 a
2020I-503.54 de4.16 cd3.85 d
II-753.07 e3.62 de3.34 e
III-1003.12 e5.38 a4.25 c
Mean for irrigation management 3.24 c4.39 b
Homogeneous groups are indicated by the same letters.
Table 3. Changes in available amounts of macronutrients (mg·kg−1) in soil depending on agrotechnical factors.
Table 3. Changes in available amounts of macronutrients (mg·kg−1) in soil depending on agrotechnical factors.
Year of ExperimentCR/% Share of CerealsNon-Irrigated
(N-IR)		Irrigated
(IR)		Mean for Crop Rotation
AN
1997I-5018.00 a14.99 a16.48 a
II-7515.71 a13.08 a14.39 a
III-10018.39 a11.94 a15.17 a
Mean for irrigation management 17.35 a13.34 a
2020I-5019.91 a14.03 a17.0 a
II-7518.82 a11.81 a15.31 a
III-10018.75 a14.38 a16.56 a
Mean for irrigation management 19.16 a13.41 a
AP
1997I-50121.20 f132.57 e126.89 e
II-75137.0 e151.17 d144.10 d
III-100157.68 d164.20 c160.94 c
Mean for irrigation management 138.62 d149.32 c
2020I-50163.25 c200.92 ab182.10 b
II-75170.10 c189.84 b180.0 b
III-100189.73 b207.88 a198.81 a
Mean for irrigation management 174.35 b199.55 a
       AK
1997I-50122.47 a115.25 a118.86 b
II-75126.88 a113.25 a120.06 b
III-100197.25 a157.58 a177.40 a
Mean for irrigation management 148.87 bc128.7 c
2020I-50192.69 a152.64 a172.67 a
II-75221.18 a164.57 a192.87 a
III-100198.84 a166.25 a182.55 a
Mean for irrigation management 201.57 a161.15 b
      AMg
1997I-5059.25 d72.50 b65.88 cd
II-7549.75 e71.50 bc60.63 d
III-10069.0 bc71.05 bc70.03 bc
Mean for irrigation management 59.3 c71.68 a
2020I-5070.79 bc67.30 bc69.04 bc
II-7570.85 bc64.47 cd67.66 bc
III-10071.97 b82.25 a77.11 a
Mean for irrigation management 71.21 b71.34 b
Homogeneous groups are indicated by the same letters.
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Jakubus, M.; Panasiewicz, K. Quantitative Changes in Selected Soil Health Indices as a Result of Long-Term (23-Year) Cultivation of Winter Wheat in Various Crop Rotations: Case Study for Sandy Soil. Agriculture 2025, 15, 1456. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15131456

AMA Style

Jakubus M, Panasiewicz K. Quantitative Changes in Selected Soil Health Indices as a Result of Long-Term (23-Year) Cultivation of Winter Wheat in Various Crop Rotations: Case Study for Sandy Soil. Agriculture. 2025; 15(13):1456. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15131456

Chicago/Turabian Style

Jakubus, Monika, and Katarzyna Panasiewicz. 2025. "Quantitative Changes in Selected Soil Health Indices as a Result of Long-Term (23-Year) Cultivation of Winter Wheat in Various Crop Rotations: Case Study for Sandy Soil" Agriculture 15, no. 13: 1456. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15131456

APA Style

Jakubus, M., & Panasiewicz, K. (2025). Quantitative Changes in Selected Soil Health Indices as a Result of Long-Term (23-Year) Cultivation of Winter Wheat in Various Crop Rotations: Case Study for Sandy Soil. Agriculture, 15(13), 1456. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15131456

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