Cognitive Impairment, Dementia and Depression in Older Adults

This narrative review integrates longitudinal cohort studies, neuroimaging and biomarker research, and major clinical trials to examine how depression and cognitive decline interact across the dementia continuum. Depression and cognitive impairment frequently co-occur in late life and exhibit substantial clinical and biological overlap. Meta-analytic and large population-based cohort studies consistently show that late-life depression increases the risk of mild cognitive impairment and dementia, with stronger associations observed for vascular dementia than for Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiological studies implicate cerebrovascular pathology, neuroinflammation, hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis dysregulation, and fronto-subcortical circuit dysfunction as key mechanisms linking depressive symptoms to later cognitive decline. In a subset of older adults, new-onset depression—particularly when accompanied by executive dysfunction, subjective cognitive decline, or high white-matter hyperintensity burden—are associated with an increased likelihood of near-term cognitive decline and dementia, although evidence for a definitive prodromal state remains limited. Depression is also highly prevalent as part of the behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia, occurring in 30–50% of individuals with Alzheimer’s disease and even higher proportions in dementia with Lewy bodies or frontotemporal dementia. Comorbid depression in dementia accelerates cognitive and functional decline, increases neuropsychiatric burden, and worsens quality of life for patients and caregivers. Therapeutically, antidepressant treatment may confer modest benefits on mood and selected cognitive domains (e.g., processing speed and executive function) in non-demented older adults, whereas in established dementia, antidepressant efficacy is limited. In contrast, cholinesterase inhibitors, memantine, and multimodal non-pharmacological interventions yield small but measurable improvements in depressive or apathy-related symptoms. Emerging disease-modifying therapies for Alzheimer’s disease have demonstrated cognitive benefits, but current trial data provide insufficient evidence regarding effects on depressive symptoms, highlighting an important gap for future research. These findings underscore the need for stage-specific, integrative strategies to address the intertwined trajectories of mood and cognition in aging.