Biofouling of Water Treatment Membranes: A Review of the Underlying Causes, Monitoring Techniques and Control Measures
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Membrane flux decline due to the formation of a low permeability biofilm on the membrane surface.
- Increased differential pressure and feed pressure being needed to maintain the same production rate due to biofilm resistance.
- Membrane biodegradation caused by acidic by-products which are concentrated at the membrane surface. For example, cellulose acetate membrane has been found to be more susceptible to being biodegraded.
- Increased salt passage through membrane and reduced quality of the product water due to the accumulation of dissolved ions in the biofilm at the membrane surface thus increasing the degree of concentration polarization.
- Increased energy consumption due to higher pressure being required to overcome the biofilm resistance and the flux decline.
2. Biofilm Formation and Characterization Techniques
2.1. Transport of Microorganisms to the Membrane Surface
2.2. Microbial Attachment and Biofilm Formation on Membrane Surfaces
Microorganism | Surface | Feed water |
---|---|---|
Species | Chemical composition | Temperature |
Composition of mixed population | Surface charge | pH |
Population density | Surface tension | Dissolved organic matter |
Growth phase | Hydrophobicity | Dissolved inorganics |
Nutrient status | Conditioning film | Suspended matter |
Hydrophobicity | Roughness | Viscosity |
Charges | Porosity | Shear forces |
Physiological responses | – | Boundary layer |
– | – | Flux |
2.3. The Role of Extracellular Polymeric Substances in Membrane Biofouling
2.4. Biofilm Characterization Techniques
2.4.1. Epifluorescence, Confocal Laser Scanning and Electron Microscopy
2.4.2. Scanning Transmission X-Ray, Atomic Force, Soft X-Ray and Digital Time-Lapse Microscopy
2.4.3. Fourier Transform Infrared, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance and Raman Spectroscopy
2.4.4. Other Characterization Techniques
2.5. Characterization of EPS
3. Monitoring of Membrane Biofouling
3.1. Biological Parameters of the Feed Water
3.2. System Performance Analysis
3.3. Silent AlarmTM System
3.4. Fluorometry
3.5. Ultrasonic Time-Domain Reflectometry
3.6. Biosensors/Nano-Sensors
3.7. Electrical Potential Measurement
3.8. Membrane Fouling Simulator
3.9. Development of Microbial Sensing Membranes
4. Biofouling Prevention and Control
4.1. Biocide Treatment
4.2. Nutrient Limitation
4.3. Other Biofouling Control Methods
4.3.1. Biological Controls
4.3.2. Electrokinetic Methods
4.3.3. Pretreatment of Feed Water with Coagulants
4.3.4. Treatment with Silver Nanoparticles
4.3.5. Membrane Surface Modification
- Polymer blending approach: Polymer blending changes the surface characteristics with only minor alteration of the bulk morphology and properties of the membrane [181].
- Grafting approach: The grafting technique employs hydrophilic polymers or plasma treatment to produce anti-fouling membrane surfaces [182]. Although this technique can be applied for any polymeric material, most of the recent work on membrane surface graft polymerization was carried out on thin-film composite polyamide membrane or porous polypropylene membrane [183].
- Surface coating: Surface coating with additives is a simple method which can be easily adapted to existing membrane manufacturing processes. After coating, the surface properties of the membrane such as hydrophobicity, roughness and surface charge are modified and the resistance to biofouling improved.
- Inorganic additives: Inorganic additives used for improving the antifouling properties of membranes include nano-sized titanium dioxide [184], silica [185], nano-sized alumina [186], zirconium dioxide [187] and lithium perchlorate [188]. Most work on titanium dioxide has been focused on the use of UV irradiation to improve the antifouling property of the membranes through photocatalytic degradation of the foulants prior to reaching the membrane surface [189].
- Antimicrobial additives: Additives which have been used for giving membrane surfaces antimicrobial properties include synthesized antimicrobial polymers which contain quaternary ammonium or phosphonium salts [190], polyethylene oxide [191], heavy metals such as copper [192] or silver [193], chitosan [194], and silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) [195]. Hybrid NF and UF membranes with immobilized Ag-NPs have shown good antibiofouling characteristics [196]. Recently, Chae et al. [197] showed that membranes coated with fullerene nanoparticles (C60) led to decreased microbial attachment and inhibited respiratory activity, therefore the biofouling resistance of membranes coated with C60 would be enhanced. However, as their study focused on the growth of E.coli K12 (cultured in Luria Bertani broth) on a MF membrane coated with fullerene nanoparticles, the effectiveness of the system for membrane fouling control for use with water and wastewater which contain many different microbial species requires further investigation. The EPS released from the microorganisms in the biofilm can be a barrier which can hinder the contact between the microorganisms in the biofilm and antimicrobial additives. Thus the anti-adhesion approach which prevents the initial attachment of the microorganisms to a membrane surface should be a more effective method than the antimicrobial approach which aims at killing microorganisms already attached to the membrane.
4.3.6. Module Design and Optimal Hydrodynamic Conditions
4.3.7. Membrane Cleaning
4.3.7.1. Physical Cleaning
4.3.7.2. Chemical Cleaning
4.3.7.3. Cleaning Efficiency
5. Concluding Remarks
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Nguyen, T.; Roddick, F.A.; Fan, L. Biofouling of Water Treatment Membranes: A Review of the Underlying Causes, Monitoring Techniques and Control Measures. Membranes 2012, 2, 804-840. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes2040804
Nguyen T, Roddick FA, Fan L. Biofouling of Water Treatment Membranes: A Review of the Underlying Causes, Monitoring Techniques and Control Measures. Membranes. 2012; 2(4):804-840. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes2040804
Chicago/Turabian StyleNguyen, Thang, Felicity A. Roddick, and Linhua Fan. 2012. "Biofouling of Water Treatment Membranes: A Review of the Underlying Causes, Monitoring Techniques and Control Measures" Membranes 2, no. 4: 804-840. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes2040804
APA StyleNguyen, T., Roddick, F. A., & Fan, L. (2012). Biofouling of Water Treatment Membranes: A Review of the Underlying Causes, Monitoring Techniques and Control Measures. Membranes, 2(4), 804-840. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes2040804