Predictors of COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy: Socio-Demographics, Co-Morbidity, and Past Experience of Racial Discrimination
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Patient and Public Involvement
2.2. Study Design
2.3. Dependent Variable
2.4. Independent Variables
2.5. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Socio-Demographic Characteristics of the Study Population
3.2. Previous COVID-19 Diagnosis, Clinical Risk, and Risk Perceptions
3.3. Past Experience with Discrimination and Vaccine Hesitancy
3.4. Logistic Regression Models
4. Discussion
Study Limitations
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Age | N (%) |
---|---|
18–24 | 354 (13.4%) |
25–34 | 841 (31.7%) |
35–44 | 906 (34.2%) |
45–54 | 339 (12.8%) |
55–64 | 152 (5.7%) |
65–74 | 47 (1.8%) |
≥75 | 11 (0.4%) |
Gender | N (%) |
Male | 1417 (53.5%) |
Female | 1213 (45.8%) |
Other | 20 (0.7%) |
Education | N (%) |
Less than high school | 92 (3.2%) |
High school/GED | 539 (20.3%) |
Some college | 579 (21.9%) |
Bachelor’s degree | 615 (23.3%) |
Post-graduate degree | 825 (31.3%) |
Race | N (%) |
White, non-Hispanic | 1754 (66.2%) |
Black, non-Hispanic | 379 (14.3%) |
Hispanic | 206 (7.8%) |
Asian, non-Hispanic | 130 (4.9%) |
2+ races | 122 (4.6%) |
Prefer not to say | 40 (1.5%) |
Other | 19 (0.7%) |
Employment status | N (%) |
Paid employee | 2032 (76.7%) |
Self-employed | 243 (9.2%) |
On unemployment | 101 (3.8%) |
Not working-searching for work | 96 (3.6%) |
On paid leave or furloughed | 41 (1.6%) |
Retired | 41 (1.6%) |
Not working-and not looking for a job | 39 (1.4%) |
On disability or worker’s compensation | 35 (1.3%) |
Other | 22 (0.8%) |
Job category (multiple choice question) | N (%) |
Hospital and emergency department workers | 624 (23.5%) |
Nursing home, long-term care, and home health care workers | 413 (15.6%) |
Public health workers | 284 (10.7%) |
Grocery store workers | 283 (10.7%) |
Teachers and school staff | 251 (9.5%) |
Food processing workers | 222 (8.4%) |
Emergency Medical Services workers | 186 (7.0%) |
Other health care workers | 170 (6.4%) |
Volunteer (i.e., CERT, MRC, Red Cross) | 168 (6.3%) |
Private transportation workers | 156 (5.9%) |
Sanitation workers | 131 (4.9%) |
Vaccine manufacturing workers | 121 (4.6%) |
Postal and shipping workers | 120 (4.5%) |
Pharmacy workers | 117 (4.4%) |
Correctional facilities workers | 116 (4.4%) |
Police or firefighters | 116 (4.4%) |
Vaccine distribution workers | 95 (3.6%) |
Other first responders | 93 (3.5%) |
Public transportation workers | 90 (3.4%) |
Co-Morbidity (Diabetes, Obesity, Rheumatological Disease, Immunocompromised Status, Cancer, Cardiovascular Disease, Chronic Respiratory Disease) | N (%) |
---|---|
No medical condition | 1764 (66.6%) |
One medical condition | 685 (25.8%) |
Two or more medical conditions | 201 (7.6%) |
Have you been diagnosed with COVID-19? | N (%) |
No | 1961 (74%) |
I am not sure | 57 (2.2%) |
Yes, with no symptoms | 266 (10%) |
Yes, with mild symptoms | 259 (9.8%) |
Yes, with severe symptoms | 107 (4%) |
Experience of unfair treatment | N (%) |
Attributed to any of the following reasons: race, religion, gender and sexual orientation | 1680 (63.4%) |
Race was the only reason or one of the reasons | 915 (34.5%) |
Religion was the only reason or one of the reasons | 318 (12%) |
Gender was the only reason or one of the reasons | 549 (20.7%) |
Sexual orientation was the only reason or one of the reasons | 361 (13.6%) |
How concerned are you about any of the following situations? | N (%) |
Contracting COVID-19 at work? (For example: hospital, office, and other work settings that are not your home) | |
Very concerned | 1542 (58.3%) |
Somewhat concerned | 792 (29.9%) |
Not concerned | 312 (11.8%) |
Contracting COVID-19 outside of work? (For example: at the grocery store, when you are using transportation, or in other aspects of your daily life) | |
Very concerned | 1266 (47.9%) |
Somewhat concerned | 1007 (38.1%) |
Not concerned | 371 (14%) |
Infecting your family or friends with COVID-19? | |
Very concerned | 1653 (62.5%) |
Somewhat concerned | 664 (25.1%) |
Not concerned | 326 (12.4%) |
COVID-19 overall risk perception | N (%) |
Low risk | 382 (14.5%) |
Medium risk | 813 (30.1%) |
High risk | 1439 (54.6%) |
If you were offered a COVID-19 vaccine within two months from now-at no cost to you- how likely are you to take it? | N (%) |
Very likely (low hesitancy) | 1059 (40%) |
Somewhat likely | 523 (19.7%) |
I would not take it within 2 months but would consider it later on | 188 (7.1%) |
Not sure | 388 (14.6%) |
Somewhat unlikely | 153 (5.8%) |
Very unlikely (high hesitancy) | 339 (12.8%) |
Simple Models | Multiple Model | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Independent Variable | OR | 95% C.I. | OR | 95% C.I. |
Age | ||||
18–24 | - | - | - | - |
25–34 | 1.07 | 0.86–1.34 | - | - |
35–44 | 0.99 | 0.80–1.24 | - | - |
45–54 | 1.03 | 0.79–1.35 | - | - |
55–64 | 0.97 | 0.69–1.36 | - | - |
65–74 | 0.75 | 0.43–1.32 | - | - |
≥75 | 1.16 | 0.41–3.24 | - | - |
Gender | ||||
Female vs. male | 0.85 * | 0.74–0.98 | 0.91 | 0.78–1.05 |
Other than female or male vs. male | 0.59 | 0.26–1.33 | 0.62 | 0.27–1.42 |
Employment status | ||||
Paid employee and self-employed vs. other categories | 1.14 | 0.94–1.39 | - | - |
Education | ||||
Less than high school | - | - | - | - |
High school/GED | 0.78 | 0.52–1.15 | 0.78 | 0.52–1.17 |
Some college | 0.66 * | 0.44–0.99 | 0.68 | 0.45–1.01 |
Bachelor’s degree | 0.77 | 0.52–1.13 | 0.78 | 0.52–1.16 |
Post-graduate degree | 0.97 | 0.66–1.43 | 0.95 | 0.64–1.40 |
Race | ||||
White non-Hispanic vs. all other races | 0.94 | 0.81–1.1 | - | - |
Black non-Hispanic vs. all other races | 1.22 * | 1.00–1.48 | 1.18 | 0.96–1.44 |
Asian non-Hispanic vs. all other races | 0.87 | 0.63–1.20 | - | - |
Hispanic vs. all other races | 0.92 | 0.71–1.20 | - | - |
Type of job | ||||
Healthcare sector employee vs. other job categories | 1.09 | 0.94–1.25 | - | - |
Medical conditions | ||||
No medical condition | - | - | - | - |
One medical condition | 1.06 | 0.90–1.24 | - | - |
Two medical conditions | 1.23 | 0.90–1.69 | - | - |
Three or more medical conditions | 0.75 | 0.46–1.22 | ||
Risk perception | ||||
Low risk perception | - | - | - | - |
Medium risk perception | 1.14 | 0.92–1.42 | 1.10 | 0.88–1.38 |
High risk perception | 1.30 * | 1.06–1.60 | 1.18 | 0.95–1.47 |
COVID-19 diagnosis | ||||
No diagnosis | - | - | - | - |
Not sure | 1.05 | 0.65–1.68 | 1.01 | 0.62–1.63 |
Yes–no symptoms | 1.02 | 0.81–1.29 | 0.89 | 0.69–1.13 |
Yes–mild symptoms | 1.13 | 0.89–1.43 | 1.02 | 0.80–1.29 |
Yes–severe symptoms | 1.42 * | 1.01–1.99 | 1.27 | 0.90–1.79 |
Experience of unfair treatment | ||||
Attributed to any of the following reasons: race, religion, gender or sexual orientation | 1.19 * | 1.03–1.37 | 0.97 | 0.82–1.16 |
Race was the only reason or one of the reasons | 1.30 ** | 1.12–1.50 | 1.21 * | 1.01–1.45 |
Religion was the only reason or one of the reasons | 1.21 | 0.98–1.49 | - | - |
Gender was the only reason or one of the reasons | 0.97 | 0.83–1.14 | - | - |
Sexual orientation was the only reason or one of the reasons | 0.97 | 0.80–1.19 | - | - |
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Share and Cite
Savoia, E.; Piltch-Loeb, R.; Goldberg, B.; Miller-Idriss, C.; Hughes, B.; Montrond, A.; Kayyem, J.; Testa, M.A. Predictors of COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy: Socio-Demographics, Co-Morbidity, and Past Experience of Racial Discrimination. Vaccines 2021, 9, 767. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9070767
Savoia E, Piltch-Loeb R, Goldberg B, Miller-Idriss C, Hughes B, Montrond A, Kayyem J, Testa MA. Predictors of COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy: Socio-Demographics, Co-Morbidity, and Past Experience of Racial Discrimination. Vaccines. 2021; 9(7):767. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9070767
Chicago/Turabian StyleSavoia, Elena, Rachael Piltch-Loeb, Beth Goldberg, Cynthia Miller-Idriss, Brian Hughes, Alberto Montrond, Juliette Kayyem, and Marcia A. Testa. 2021. "Predictors of COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy: Socio-Demographics, Co-Morbidity, and Past Experience of Racial Discrimination" Vaccines 9, no. 7: 767. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9070767