Moderately Low Effectiveness of the Influenza Quadrivalent Vaccine: Potential Mismatch between Circulating Strains and Vaccine Strains
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Setting, Patients and Sample Collection
2.2. Ethical Approval
2.3. Identification of Case and Control Patient
2.4. Influenza Vaccination Status
2.5. Evaluation of VE
2.6. RNA Extraction
2.7. Molecular Detection Influenza A Viruses by One-Step Real-Time RT-PCR
2.8. Molecular Subtyping of Influenza A and B Viruses
2.9. Molecular Phylogenetic Analysis of Influenza A (H3N2) and (H1N1) Viruses and Analysis of the Sequencing Data, Phylogenetic Tree
2.10. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Characteristics of Study Participants
3.2. Pathogen Spectrum of Influenza Cases and Virological Description in 2019/2020
3.3. Influenza A Subtypes Predominant during the Study Period (2019–2022 Seasons)
3.4. Vaccine Effectiveness (VE) for Preventing Influenza Illness
3.5. VE against Influenza A Subtypes
3.6. Vaccine Effectiveness for Preventing Influenza B Illness
3.7. Vaccine Effectiveness according to Age Group
3.8. Vaccine Effectiveness according to Gender
3.9. Association of Prior Season (2018–2019) Vaccination on Current Season (2019–2020) VE
3.10. Phylogenetic Analysis
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
5.1. Implication in Clinical Practice
5.2. Limitations of the Study
5.3. Recommendations for Future Research
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Baseline Variables | All Patients | Vaccinated | Unvaccinated | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|
(n = 778) | n = 302 (39%) | n = 476 (61%) | ||
Characteristics: | ||||
Age | ||||
Median | 31 ± 10 | 31 ± 7 | 31 ± 12 | |
Range | 3–88 | 21–70 | 3–88 | |
Gender | ||||
Men | 265 (34%) | 161 (61%) | 104 (39%) | 0.860 * |
Women | 513 (66%) | 315 (61%) | 198 (39%) | |
Chronic Diseases | ||||
Healthy | 735 (94%) | 282 (38%) | 453 (62%) | 0.286 * |
Diseased | 43 (6%) | 20 (47%) | 23 (53%) | |
Flu infection | 171 (22%) | 51 (30%) | 120 (70%) | |
Flu A | 151 (88%) | 45 (30%) | 106 (70%) | 0.985 * |
Flu B | 20 (12%) | 6 (30%) | 14 (70%) |
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Awadalla, M.E.; Alkadi, H.; Alarjani, M.; Al-Anazi, A.E.; Ibrahim, M.A.; ALOhali, T.A.; Enani, M.; Alturaiki, W.; Alosaimi, B. Moderately Low Effectiveness of the Influenza Quadrivalent Vaccine: Potential Mismatch between Circulating Strains and Vaccine Strains. Vaccines 2023, 11, 1050. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines11061050
Awadalla ME, Alkadi H, Alarjani M, Al-Anazi AE, Ibrahim MA, ALOhali TA, Enani M, Alturaiki W, Alosaimi B. Moderately Low Effectiveness of the Influenza Quadrivalent Vaccine: Potential Mismatch between Circulating Strains and Vaccine Strains. Vaccines. 2023; 11(6):1050. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines11061050
Chicago/Turabian StyleAwadalla, Maaweya E., Haitham Alkadi, Modhi Alarjani, Abdullah E. Al-Anazi, Mohanad A. Ibrahim, Thamer Ahmad ALOhali, Mushira Enani, Wael Alturaiki, and Bandar Alosaimi. 2023. "Moderately Low Effectiveness of the Influenza Quadrivalent Vaccine: Potential Mismatch between Circulating Strains and Vaccine Strains" Vaccines 11, no. 6: 1050. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines11061050
APA StyleAwadalla, M. E., Alkadi, H., Alarjani, M., Al-Anazi, A. E., Ibrahim, M. A., ALOhali, T. A., Enani, M., Alturaiki, W., & Alosaimi, B. (2023). Moderately Low Effectiveness of the Influenza Quadrivalent Vaccine: Potential Mismatch between Circulating Strains and Vaccine Strains. Vaccines, 11(6), 1050. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines11061050