Economic-Related Inequalities in Zero-Dose Children: A Study of Non-Receipt of Diphtheria–Tetanus–Pertussis Immunization Using Household Health Survey Data from 89 Low- and Middle-Income Countries
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data
2.2. Country Selection
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Latest Situation
3.2. Change over Time
3.3. Countries with High Prevalence or Number of Children with Zero-Dose DTP
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Country | Source | National Average (95% CI) | Quintile 1 (Poorest) (95% CI) | Quintile 2 (95% CI) | Quintile 3 (95% CI) | Quintile 4 (95% CI) | Quintile 5 (Richest) (95% CI) | Difference (95% CI) | Ratio (95% CI) | Slope Index of Inequality (95% CI) | Concentration Index (95% CI) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Median (All Countries) | 7.6 (4.3–10.9) | 9.9 (5.0–14.9) | 7.7 (3.7–11.8) | 6.8 (3.4–10.2) | 6.8 (4.0–9.7) | 5.0 (2.9–7.1) | 6.3 (2.6–10.0) | 2.59 (0.19–4.98) | −7.8 (−12.2–−3.4) | −18.8 (−23.6–−14.1) | |
Low-Income Countries | |||||||||||
Median (Low-Income Countries) | 11.9 (2.1–21.7) | 20.7 (8.4–33.0) | 14.6 (3.4–25.8) | 9.5 (−1.1–20.2) | 10.2 (1.3–19.1) | 6.3 (0.2–12.4) | 15.7 (8.0–23.4) | 2.97 (−4.83–10.78) | −19.1 (−28.0–−10.2) | −19.5 (−25.5–−13.6) | |
Afghanistan | DHS 2015 | 27.0 (23.8–30.5) | 34.3 (29.8–39.2) | 32.3 (26.8–38.2) | 31.3 (24.4–39.3) | 22.6 (18.0–28.0) | 15.3 (12.0–19.3) | 19.1 (13.1–25.0) | 2.25 (1.71–2.95) | −22.5 (−29.9–−15.0) | −14.6 (−19.8–−9.5) |
Burkina Faso | DHS 2010 | 5.6 (4.5–7.1) | 9.3 (6.5–13.3) | 6.3 (4.4–9.1) | 5.6 (3.9–7.8) | 3.4 (2.0–5.8) | 2.8 (1.3–5.7) | 6.5 (2.6–10.5) | 3.35 (1.48–7.56) | −7.8 (−12.2–−3.3) | −21.8 (−32.4–−11.1) |
Burundi | DHS 2016 | 0.8 (0.5–1.2) | 1.9 (0.9–3.6) | 0.8 (0.3–2.0) | 0.2 (0.0–1.3) | 0.4 (0.1–1.5) | 0.7 (0.3–2.0) | 1.1 (−0.3–2.6) | 2.59 (0.76–8.84) | −1.5 (−3.0–0.1) | −32.7 (−58.7–−6.7) |
Central African Republic | MICS 2018 | 45.0 (41.7–48.3) | 59.6 (52.9–66.0) | 54.8 (48.0–61.5) | 46.1 (39.6–52.8) | 38.8 (33.1–44.9) | 17.4 (13.3–22.5) | 42.2 (34.2–50.2) | 3.42 (2.57–4.56) | −44.9 (−53.8–−36.0) | −17.3 (−20.6–−13.9) |
Democratic Republic of the Congo | MICS 2017 | 34.1 (30.2–38.2) | 47.4 (41.1–53.8) | 43.8 (37.4–50.4) | 32.1 (25.6–39.4) | 24.7 (17.6–33.5) | 14.7 (10.3–20.6) | 32.7 (24.5–40.9) | 3.22 (2.22–4.68) | −38.4 (−48.5–−28.4) | −20.5 (−25.5–−15.5) |
Ethiopia | DHS 2019 | 23.7 (19.2–28.9) | 41.2 (30.4–52.8) | 24.2 (16.3–34.3) | 30.3 (20.5–42.3) | 22.0 (13.3–34.1) | 5.2 (2.2–12.0) | 35.9 (23.8–48.1) | 7.89 (3.22–19.33) | −39.5 (−52.6–−26.5) | −28.2 (−36.9–−19.5) |
Gambia | MICS 2018 | 3.2 (2.2–4.7) | 3.7 (1.9–6.9) | 2.6 (1.1–6.0) | 2.9 (1.4–5.9) | 4.8 (1.9–11.4) | 2.3 (0.6–8.5) | 1.4 (−2.4–5.3) | 1.63 (0.36–7.26) | −0.4 (−5.0–4.2) | 1.3 (−20.6–23.2) |
Guinea | DHS 2018 | 37.7 (34.1–41.4) | 55.4 (47.2–63.2) | 41.3 (35.1–47.7) | 41.6 (34.6–48.8) | 25.4 (19.9–31.8) | 19.0 (13.6–26.0) | 36.3 (26.2–46.5) | 2.91 (2.04–4.15) | −41.5 (−52.2–−30.8) | −19.8 (−24.7–−15.0) |
Guinea-Bissau | MICS 2018 | 7.0 (5.2–9.4) | 7.4 (4.1–12.9) | 7.8 (5.0–12.2) | 3.3 (1.5–6.8) | 9.6 (6.1–14.8) | 7.6 (3.6–15.3) | −0.2 (−7.2–6.7) | 0.97 (0.39–2.45) | 0.6 (−7.2–8.5) | 1.0 (−17.3–19.2) |
Liberia | DHS 2019 | 8.6 (6.3–11.5) | 11.4 (8.1–15.9) | 7.7 (4.5–12.9) | 8.7 (3.7–19.2) | 10.7 (5.5–19.7) | 0.2 (0.0–1.2) | 11.3 (7.5–15.1) | 70.75 (9.53–525.14) | −7.9 (−15.8–0.1) | −15.7 (−32.6–1.1) |
Madagascar | MICS 2018 | 28.5 (25.9–31.2) | 48.0 (43.2–52.8) | 30.0 (25.5–34.8) | 21.7 (17.5–26.5) | 16.3 (12.1–21.6) | 10.9 (7.6–15.3) | 37.1 (31.0–43.3) | 4.42 (3.08–6.34) | −44.8 (−51.9–−37.7) | −27.5 (−31.8–−23.3) |
Malawi | DHS 2015 | 2.6 (1.9–3.5) | 3.5 (2.0–5.9) | 2.3 (1.3–4.1) | 1.9 (1.0–3.5) | 2.6 (1.3–5.1) | 2.5 (1.2–5.2) | 1.0 (−1.6–3.6) | 1.39 (0.56–3.43) | −1.2 (−4.0–1.6) | −6.6 (−22.5–9.4) |
Mali | DHS 2018 | 17.9 (15.1–21.1) | 28.6 (21.7–36.7) | 20.4 (15.2–26.7) | 17.8 (13.6–22.9) | 13.9 (10.0–19.1) | 7.4 (4.8–11.2) | 21.2 (13.1–29.4) | 3.87 (2.36–6.35) | −23.7 (−33.2–−14.3) | −22.6 (−29.5–−15.7) |
Mozambique | DHS 2015 | 10.0 (6.8–14.4) | 19.4 (13.0–27.9) | 12.7 (6.5–23.4) | 5.4 (2.9–9.6) | 4.5 (1.8–10.8) | 2.7 (1.1–6.4) | 16.7 (8.9–24.5) | 7.09 (2.78–18.13) | −22.9 (−34.9–−11.0) | −35.7 (−46.0–−25.5) |
Niger | DHS 2012 | 13.8 (11.6–16.5) | 22.0 (17.4–27.4) | 16.5 (12.3–21.8) | 11.6 (8.4–16.0) | 12.7 (8.1–19.4) | 7.2 (4.9–10.7) | 14.7 (9.0–20.5) | 3.04 (1.93–4.78) | −15.8 (−22.7–−8.9) | −20.6 (−28.0–−13.2) |
Rwanda | DHS 2014 | 0.9 (0.5–1.7) | 1.9 (0.8–4.5) | 0.4 (0.1–2.9) | 0.9 (0.2–3.9) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | 1.1 (0.3–3.2) | 0.9 (−1.2–2.9) | 1.81 (0.44–7.42) | −1.3 (−3.5–1.0) | −25.5 (−61.7–10.8) |
Sierra Leone | DHS 2019 | 5.4 (4.2–6.9) | 6.6 (4.4–9.9) | 4.4 (2.5–7.5) | 7.2 (4.6–11.0) | 3.5 (1.8–6.7) | 4.4 (2.0–9.5) | 2.3 (−2.1–6.6) | 1.52 (0.62–3.68) | −2.6 (−7.2–2.1) | −6.7 (−20.5–7.1) |
South Sudan * | MICS 2010 | 72.7 (69.6–75.5) | 85.3 (79.7–89.6) | 81.2 (76.2–85.4) | 73.3 (67.1–78.8) | 72.2 (66.5–77.3) | 53.2 (46.4–59.9) | 32.1 (23.8–40.5) | 1.60 (1.40–1.84) | −36.2 (−45.5–−26.9) | −8.6 (−10.9–−6.3) |
Sudan | MICS 2014 | 16.8 (14.3–19.6) | 35.0 (28.1–42.5) | 23.4 (18.8–28.7) | 10.4 (7.6–13.9) | 7.5 (5.0–11.0) | 5.4 (3.0–9.5) | 29.6 (21.8–37.5) | 6.53 (3.51–12.15) | −38.2 (−47.5–−28.9) | −36.7 (−43.7–−29.7) |
Togo | MICS 2017 | 9.2 (6.8–12.2) | 14.9 (10.4–20.9) | 11.1 (5.9–19.9) | 6.2 (3.2–11.8) | 5.2 (2.1–12.1) | 8.0 (4.0–15.3) | 6.9 (−0.6–14.4) | 1.86 (0.87–3.96) | −10.4 (−19.8–−1.0) | −16.5 (−34.0–0.9) |
Uganda | DHS 2016 | 5.1 (4.1–6.3) | 4.7 (3.2–6.9) | 5.1 (3.3–7.7) | 4.7 (2.8–7.8) | 5.6 (3.6–8.7) | 5.4 (3.2–9.0) | −0.6 (−4.0–2.7) | 0.88 (0.46–1.68) | 0.9 (−2.9–4.6) | 1.7 (−10.7–14.1) |
Yemen | DHS 2013 | 23.4 (21.2–25.8) | 32.5 (26.9–38.6) | 26.8 (22.8–31.3) | 23.3 (19.1–28.0) | 21.4 (17.2–26.2) | 9.5 (7.0–12.9) | 23.0 (16.4–29.5) | 3.41 (2.39–4.87) | −24.6 (−32.4–−16.8) | −19.2 (−24.2–−14.3) |
Lower–Middle-Income Countries | |||||||||||
Median (Lower–Middle-Income Countries) | 9.4 (5.3–13.4) | 13.8 (7.2–20.4) | 8.1 (2.8–13.4) | 7.1 (3.0–11.1) | 7.1 (3.8–10.4) | 4.9 (2.1–7.6) | 8.4 (2.7–14.1) | 3.23 (1.26–5.20) | −11.3 (−18.2–−4.4) | −23.8 (−31.7–−15.9) | |
Algeria | MICS 2018 | 4.5 (3.7–5.5) | 6.9 (5.0–9.5) | 3.1 (2.0–4.6) | 5.2 (3.3–8.3) | 3.4 (2.0–5.9) | 3.3 (1.6–6.4) | 3.6 (0.5–6.8) | 2.12 (1.00–4.49) | −3.8 (−7.6–0.0) | −15.7 (−28.5–−3.0) |
Angola | DHS 2015 | 31.2 (28.6–34.0) | 57.5 (51.6–63.2) | 42.7 (37.9–47.6) | 21.7 (17.6–26.4) | 12.1 (7.6–18.6) | 9.4 (5.8–14.8) | 48.1 (40.8–55.4) | 6.13 (3.81–9.86) | −59.7 (−67.1–−52.4) | −33.4 (−37.9–−28.9) |
Belize | MICS 2015 | 7.1 (4.4–11.2) | 10.2 (4.7–21.0) | 1.5 (0.5–4.5) | 1.9 (0.5–7.7) | 7.1 (1.8–23.8) | 16.1 (7.2–32.3) | −5.9 (−20.3–8.6) | 0.64 (0.22–1.86) | 6.0 (−10.6–22.6) | 10.7 (−23.1–44.5) |
Benin | DHS 2017 | 15.8 (13.8–17.9) | 32.4 (26.8–38.6) | 18.2 (14.7–22.3) | 11.8 (9.1–15.3) | 8.8 (6.3–12.0) | 6.9 (4.6–10.2) | 25.5 (19.1–32.0) | 4.71 (3.05–7.27) | −30.3 (−37.7–−22.9) | −32.6 (−38.8–−26.4) |
Cambodia | DHS 2014 | 6.0 (4.6–7.9) | 11.7 (8.3–16.2) | 8.1 (5.0–13.0) | 6.9 (3.5–13.2) | 0.8 (0.2–2.9) | 0.6 (0.2–1.7) | 11.0 (7.1–15.0) | 18.82 (6.37–55.59) | −17.1 (−23.3–−10.9) | −43.2 (−53.4–−33.1) |
Cameroon | DHS 2018 | 16.7 (14.2–19.5) | 29.9 (23.8–36.8) | 18.6 (13.7–24.7) | 15.6 (11.9–20.2) | 10.0 (6.8–14.6) | 4.9 (2.8–8.2) | 25.0 (18.0–32.0) | 6.15 (3.45–10.97) | −28.1 (−36.3–−19.9) | −29.1 (−35.7–−22.6) |
Comoros | DHS 2012 | 17.8 (14.1–22.2) | 26.4 (16.9–38.7) | 22.6 (15.2–32.4) | 11.6 (6.8–18.9) | 11.8 (5.8–22.3) | 14.5 (7.9–25.1) | 11.9 (−1.9–25.7) | 1.82 (0.89–3.72) | −17.6 (−31.3–−3.9) | −15.7 (−28.4–−2.9) |
Congo | MICS 2014 | 14.0 (12.0–16.3) | 28.5 (23.9–33.4) | 14.1 (10.6–18.6) | 7.2 (4.2–12.1) | 7.4 (4.2–12.8) | 8.7 (4.7–15.7) | 19.7 (12.6–26.8) | 3.26 (1.74–6.11) | −25.4 (−33.5–−17.4) | −32.6 (−42.1–−23.0) |
Côte d’Ivoire | MICS 2016 | 19.6 (17.3–22.2) | 29.6 (24.7–34.9) | 18.9 (14.7–23.9) | 19.7 (15.2–25.1) | 11.8 (7.6–17.9) | 11.3 (6.4–19.0) | 18.3 (10.3–26.3) | 2.63 (1.48–4.66) | −22.2 (−30.9–−13.5) | −19.2 (−26.8–−11.7) |
Egypt | DHS 2014 | 0.6 (0.3–1.1) | 1.2 (0.4–4.0) | 0.7 (0.2–2.4) | 0.5 (0.2–1.6) | 0.3 (0.1–1.2) | 0.3 (0.0–1.7) | 0.9 (−0.6–2.5) | 4.23 (0.49–36.52) | −1.0 (−2.5–0.5) | −33.6 (−68.2–1.0) |
El Salvador | MICS 2014 | 1.1 (0.5–2.5) | 0.2 (0.0–1.5) | 0.9 (0.3–2.9) | 1.1 (0.4–2.7) | 3.3 (0.8–12.1) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | 0.2 (−0.2–0.6) | NA | 1.5 (−1.3–4.2) | 19.4 (−11.5–50.3) |
Eswatini | MICS 2014 | 3.4 (2.1–5.6) | 4.7 (1.9–11.3) | 1.3 (0.3–5.3) | 1.9 (0.5–7.4) | 7.6 (3.0–18.0) | 2.6 (0.7–8.8) | 2.1 (−3.3–7.4) | 1.78 (0.39–8.23) | 0.4 (−6.2–6.9) | −3.2 (−37.6–31.2) |
Ghana | MICS 2017 | 4.0 (2.8–5.8) | 5.4 (2.9–9.8) | 5.2 (2.5–10.4) | 4.1 (2.2–7.8) | 3.3 (1.4–7.3) | 2.2 (0.9–5.5) | 3.2 (−0.7–7.0) | 2.45 (0.81–7.44) | −4.4 (−9.7–1.0) | −17.1 (−34.4–0.2) |
Haiti | DHS 2016 | 16.5 (13.3–20.1) | 25.1 (18.9–32.5) | 19.6 (13.1–28.3) | 16.1 (11.3–22.4) | 9.4 (5.4–15.7) | 4.4 (1.3–14.1) | 20.7 (12.1–29.3) | 5.73 (1.64–20.05) | −25.5 (−36.3–−14.6) | −25.5 (−34.7–−16.3) |
Honduras | DHS 2011 | 0.9 (0.5–1.5) | 0.8 (0.2–2.6) | 1.3 (0.6–3.2) | 1.2 (0.4–3.3) | 0.9 (0.3–3.0) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | 0.8 (−0.2–1.8) | NA | −0.7 (−2.1–0.7) | −13.4 (−39.7–12.8) |
India | DHS 2015 | 10.5 (10.1–10.9) | 15.8 (15.0–16.7) | 11.4 (10.5–12.2) | 8.8 (8.0–9.7) | 7.0 (6.2–7.9) | 7.1 (5.8–8.5) | 8.8 (7.2–10.4) | 2.24 (1.84–2.74) | −11.5 (−13.2–−9.8) | −18.9 (−21.7–−16.1) |
Indonesia | DHS 2017 | 11.1 (9.8–12.7) | 16.2 (13.3–19.7) | 13.9 (10.9–17.5) | 10.2 (7.7–13.3) | 7.9 (5.6–10.9) | 7.6 (5.4–10.6) | 8.6 (4.6–12.7) | 2.14 (1.45–3.15) | −12.0 (−17.0–−6.9) | −18.6 (−25.6–−11.6) |
Kenya | DHS 2014 | 2.5 (1.9–3.3) | 5.2 (3.8–6.9) | 1.6 (0.9–2.8) | 1.7 (0.5–5.8) | 0.8 (0.4–1.6) | 2.2 (0.8–5.9) | 3.0 (0.3–5.7) | 2.38 (0.83–6.86) | −3.8 (−6.8–−0.8) | −27.9 (−51.9–−3.9) |
Kiribati | MICS 2018 | 40.1 (35.1–45.4) | 40.4 (29.3–52.5) | 36.3 (26.7–47.0) | 45.8 (35.2–56.7) | 45.8 (35.1–56.9) | 32.6 (22.0–45.4) | 7.7 (−8.9–24.4) | 1.24 (0.78–1.97) | −3.0 (−21.7–15.6) | −1.3 (−9.0–6.4) |
Kyrgyzstan | MICS 2018 | 9.4 (6.7–12.9) | 10.2 (4.9–20.0) | 4.2 (1.8–9.6) | 7.1 (3.1–15.1) | 9.3 (4.7–17.5) | 18.3 (11.1–28.7) | −8.1 (−19.4–3.2) | 0.56 (0.24–1.30) | 8.7 (−3.0–20.4) | 18.0 (−0.7–36.8) |
Lao People’s Democratic Republic | MICS 2017 | 27.1 (24.7–29.7) | 43.3 (38.0–48.7) | 29.7 (24.9–35.1) | 22.4 (18.1–27.4) | 19.5 (15.2–24.5) | 14.6 (10.8–19.5) | 28.7 (21.7–35.6) | 2.96 (2.14–4.08) | −34.5 (−42.3–−26.6) | −22.1 (−26.9–−17.2) |
Lesotho | MICS 2018 | 8.5 (6.3–11.2) | 17.0 (11.0–25.3) | 7.4 (3.6–14.8) | 5.5 (2.5–11.5) | 3.7 (1.7–8.0) | 8.5 (3.8–18.2) | 8.4 (−1.3–18.2) | 1.99 (0.81–4.86) | −11.5 (−22.0–−1.1) | −19.8 (−37.7–−1.8) |
Mauritania | MICS 2015 | 14.2 (12.1–16.6) | 25.0 (19.0–32.2) | 18.5 (14.6–23.3) | 13.0 (9.6–17.4) | 8.1 (5.3–12.1) | 4.1 (1.8–8.9) | 20.9 (13.6–28.3) | 6.10 (2.66–14.01) | −27.7 (−36.8–−18.6) | −31.3 (−39.8–−22.8) |
Mongolia | MICS 2018 | 3.0 (1.9–4.5) | 3.6 (1.8–6.9) | 2.0 (0.9–4.3) | 4.1 (1.8–9.3) | 3.2 (1.2–7.8) | 1.6 (0.4–6.3) | 2.0 (−1.3–5.3) | 2.25 (0.48–10.55) | −1.1 (−4.9–2.6) | −3.2 (−25.8–19.4) |
Myanmar | DHS 2015 | 13.1 (10.1–16.9) | 18.1 (12.1–26.1) | 18.9 (12.7–27.2) | 18.3 (10.7–29.4) | 2.2 (0.7–7.0) | 3.7 (1.2–10.9) | 14.4 (6.3–22.5) | 4.88 (1.51–15.74) | −21.6 (−32.5–−10.6) | −27.0 (−38.8–−15.3) |
Nepal | MICS 2019 | 10.5 (8.5–13.0) | 13.8 (10.1–18.7) | 14.5 (10.1–20.4) | 9.4 (5.5–15.4) | 7.1 (3.9–12.4) | 6.6 (3.6–12.0) | 7.2 (1.3–13.1) | 2.09 (1.06–4.13) | −11.1 (−18.2–−4.1) | −16.8 (−27.2–−6.4) |
Nigeria | DHS 2018 | 34.7 (32.7–36.7) | 59.8 (56.0–63.4) | 48.9 (44.8–53.1) | 31.0 (27.7–34.5) | 19.1 (16.3–22.3) | 6.6 (4.9–8.8) | 53.2 (49.0–57.4) | 9.08 (6.69–12.32) | −62.4 (−66.9–−57.9) | −32.5 (−35.0–−30.0) |
Pakistan | DHS 2017 | 13.7 (11.2–16.5) | 30.8 (23.7–38.9) | 17.1 (12.2–23.3) | 11.4 (7.9–16.3) | 6.1 (3.8–9.7) | 3.1 (1.6–6.0) | 27.6 (19.7–35.6) | 9.85 (4.85–20.03) | −36.1 (−46.5–−25.7) | −39.7 (−47.1–−32.2) |
Papua New Guinea | DHS 2016 | 36.1 (32.2–40.2) | 60.7 (51.9–68.9) | 45.6 (37.7–53.9) | 33.8 (27.6–40.6) | 28.4 (22.7–34.9) | 13.4 (9.1–19.1) | 47.3 (37.4–57.2) | 4.54 (3.06–6.75) | −51.9 (−61.7–−42.1) | −25.7 (−30.3–−21.1) |
Philippines | DHS 2017 | 13.4 (11.5–15.5) | 23.6 (19.8–28.0) | 9.4 (6.5–13.5) | 13.4 (8.8–19.7) | 8.0 (4.6–13.4) | 5.6 (2.6–11.5) | 18.0 (12.2–23.9) | 4.22 (1.97–9.07) | −20.1 (−27.3–−12.9) | −26.4 (−35.2–−17.5) |
Republic of Moldova | MICS 2012 | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) ** | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | NA | ||
Sao Tome and Principe | MICS 2019 | 2.3 (1.1–4.7) | 6.5 (2.7–14.8) | 1.3 (0.2–8.8) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | 2.0 (0.3–12.4) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | 6.5 (1.0–12.0) | NA | −8.3 (−19.7–3.1) | −47.0 (−91.0–−3.0) |
Senegal | DHS 2019 | 3.8 (2.6–5.6) | 8.9 (5.3–14.6) | 2.3 (1.0–5.5) | 4.5 (1.6–12.0) | 1.9 (0.6–5.5) | 0.5 (0.1–2.4) | 8.4 (3.8–13.0) | 17.91 (3.44–93.24) | −9.3 (−15.8–−2.9) | −41.9 (−61.2–−22.7) |
Tajikistan | DHS 2017 | 7.6 (6.1–9.4) | 8.1 (5.1–12.6) | 6.5 (3.8–10.9) | 6.4 (4.2–9.8) | 7.7 (4.9–11.7) | 10.5 (7.3–14.8) | −2.4 (−7.6–2.8) | 0.77 (0.43–1.38) | 2.3 (−3.2–7.9) | 5.1 (−7.0–17.1) |
Timor-Leste | DHS 2016 | 21.6 (18.8–24.7) | 36.0 (29.2–43.4) | 28.1 (22.4–34.6) | 19.8 (14.9–25.9) | 15.4 (11.5–20.4) | 9.8 (5.8–15.9) | 26.2 (17.6–34.9) | 3.69 (2.15–6.32) | −30.7 (−39.8–−21.6) | −25.6 (−32.7–−18.6) |
Tunisia | MICS 2018 | 4.6 (3.1–6.7) | 0.8 (0.1–5.4) | 1.1 (0.3–4.4) | 6.7 (3.3–13.2) | 4.2 (1.8–9.5) | 11.5 (6.4–19.7) | −10.7 (−17.3–−4.1) | 0.07 (0.01–0.52) | 12.4 (4.9–19.9) | 45.4 (30.4–60.4) |
Ukraine | MICS 2012 | 15.6 (12.1–20.0) | 22.1 (14.5–32.2) | 13.5 (6.8–25.1) | 10.4 (5.8–18.2) | 13.0 (6.3–25.0) | 19.5 (11.8–30.7) | 2.6 (−10.3–15.5) | 1.13 (0.61–2.12) | −1.5 (−15.8–12.9) | −0.0 (−15.6–15.5) |
United Republic of Tanzania | DHS 2015 | 3.0 (2.2–4.2) | 6.6 (4.4–9.7) | 3.6 (1.9–6.7) | 2.7 (1.4–5.1) | 0.3 (0.1–1.4) | 1.2 (0.4–3.8) | 5.4 (2.5–8.3) | 5.55 (1.62–18.96) | −7.8 (−11.8–−3.9) | −41.4 (−55.5–−27.2) |
Viet Nam | MICS 2013 | 3.8 (2.6–5.5) | 12.7 (8.2–19.3) | 2.6 (1.0–6.9) | 2.0 (0.5–8.0) | 1.7 (0.4–7.1) | 0.7 (0.1–5.0) | 12.0 (6.4–17.7) | 17.98 (2.39–135.16) | −12.8 (−19.8–−5.8) | −55.3 (−77.2–−33.5) |
Zambia | DHS 2018 | 2.1 (1.4–3.1) | 3.1 (1.8–5.5) | 2.5 (1.2–5.1) | 1.8 (0.8–3.7) | 1.6 (0.5–5.1) | 1.0 (0.2–4.1) | 2.2 (−0.1–4.4) | 3.23 (0.67–15.59) | −2.7 (−5.6–0.2) | −22.2 (−43.0–−1.3) |
Zimbabwe | MICS 2019 | 5.5 (3.9–7.6) | 8.0 (4.3–14.4) | 7.8 (4.3–13.7) | 5.8 (3.0–10.8) | 2.5 (1.0–6.0) | 1.7 (0.6–4.6) | 6.3 (1.2–11.4) | 4.65 (1.47–14.75) | −9.1 (−16.1–−2.0) | −26.4 (−40.9–−11.9) |
Upper–Middle-Income Countries | |||||||||||
Median (Upper–Middle-Income Countries) | 4.8 (2.7–6.9) | 6.3 (3.5–9.1) | 5.7 (3.2–8.1) | 5.2 (3.2–7.1) | 6.0 (4.1–8.0) | 3.6 (0.9–6.3) | 2.4 (−0.0–4.8) | 1.92 (−1.12–4.95) | −3.6 (−6.9–−0.4) | −9.1 (−17.7–−0.5) | |
Albania | DHS 2017 | 0.5 (0.1–1.8) | 0.9 (0.1–6.2) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | 1.1 (0.2–7.5) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) ** | 0.9 (−0.9–2.7) | NA | −20.8 (−40.5–−1.0) | −5.2 (−9.7–−0.8) |
Armenia | DHS 2015 | 1.5 (0.7–3.3) | 1.6 (0.4–6.2) | 2.4 (0.3–14.9) | 2.2 (0.7–7.0) | 2.0 (0.5–8.0) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | 1.6 (−0.6–3.7) | NA | −2.1 (−5.4–1.2) | −26.3 (−55.9–3.4) |
Bosnia and Herzegovina | MICS 2011 | 3.0 (1.8–4.9) | 4.7 (1.7–12.3) | 5.7 (2.5–12.4) | 0.8 (0.1–5.7) | 3.0 (1.1–8.2) | 1.6 (0.4–6.1) | 3.1 (−2.1–8.2) | 2.99 (0.54–16.57) | −4.3 (−10.3–1.6) | −25.5 (−57.7–6.7) |
Costa Rica | MICS 2018 | 2.3 (1.1–4.7) | 4.1 (2.2–7.6) | 3.2 (0.8–12.1) | 1.2 (0.3–5.3) | 0.1 (0.0–0.6) | 2.0 (0.5–7.4) | 2.1 (−1.6–5.8) | 2.03 (0.47–8.64) | −5.2 (−9.3–−1.1) | −33.6 (−51.1–−16.0) |
Cuba | MICS 2019 | 2.6 (1.3–5.0) | 4.7 (1.5–14.0) | 4.3 (1.2–14.0) | 1.6 (0.4–6.0) | 1.3 (0.3–4.7) | 0.3 (0.0–2.0) | 4.4 (−0.9–9.8) | 17.28 (1.77–169.02) | −6.4 (−13.8–1.1) | −36.2 (−57.2–−15.1) |
Dominican Republic | MICS 2014 | 8.9 (7.7–10.2) | 14.1 (11.5–17.1) | 9.6 (7.0–13.0) | 5.5 (3.8–7.9) | 6.9 (4.8–9.8) | 6.3 (4.1–9.7) | 7.7 (3.8–11.7) | 2.22 (1.38–3.60) | −10.0 (−14.6–−5.4) | −20.0 (−27.7–−12.3) |
Gabon | DHS 2012 | 11.6 (9.0–14.7) | 18.1 (13.9–23.3) | 12.2 (7.5–19.2) | 9.1 (4.8–16.4) | 7.6 (3.1–17.5) | 8.5 (2.3–26.5) | 9.7 (−1.8–21.1) | 2.14 (0.60–7.56) | −12.9 (−24.0–−1.8) | −18.8 (−34.6–−3.0) |
Guatemala | DHS 2014 | 2.5 (1.8–3.3) | 2.8 (1.7–4.6) | 3.0 (1.7–5.3) | 2.2 (1.2–3.8) | 2.0 (0.7–5.5) | 2.0 (0.8–5.3) | 0.8 (−1.6–3.2) | 1.38 (0.47–4.08) | −1.3 (−3.9–1.3) | −10.4 (−27.0–6.2) |
Guyana | MICS 2014 | 4.4 (2.7–7.2) | 6.3 (3.6–10.7) | 2.7 (1.0–7.2) | 6.5 (2.0–19.5) | 3.2 (1.1–9.0) | 1.9 (0.5–7.3) | 4.4 (0.2–8.7) | 3.40 (0.76–15.17) | −3.9 (−9.4–1.6) | −10.8 (−31.7–10.1) |
Iraq | MICS 2018 | 13.3 (11.4–15.5) | 18.4 (15.0–22.4) | 14.0 (10.5–18.4) | 15.4 (11.0–21.2) | 12.5 (8.2–18.5) | 5.0 (2.9–8.4) | 13.4 (8.8–18.0) | 3.70 (2.08–6.56) | −13.2 (−19.0–−7.4) | −18.5 (−25.9–−11.2) |
Jamaica | MICS 2011 | 4.8 (2.5–9.3) | 5.7 (1.6–17.9) | 0.6 (0.1–4.3) | 10.0 (2.9–28.8) | 6.5 (2.3–16.7) | 0.9 (0.1–6.6) | 4.7 (−2.4–11.8) | 6.08 (0.59–62.25) | −0.8 (−8.3–6.6) | −6.2 (−33.5–21.2) |
Jordan | DHS 2017 | 7.4 (5.7–9.7) | 9.4 (6.3–13.9) | 7.9 (4.8–12.8) | 4.7 (2.6–8.4) | 7.5 (3.4–15.8) | 7.5 (2.5–20.0) | 2.0 (−6.7–10.6) | 1.26 (0.41–3.86) | −3.8 (−12.2–4.5) | −7.8 (−25.4–9.7) |
Kazakhstan | MICS 2015 | 4.4 (3.2–6.0) | 3.6 (1.6–7.6) | 2.4 (1.1–5.0) | 2.9 (1.4–5.9) | 6.3 (3.5–10.9) | 8.0 (3.9–15.7) | −4.4 (−10.6–1.8) | 0.45 (0.16–1.27) | 5.8 (−0.3–12.0) | 19.2 (−0.0–38.4) |
Maldives | DHS 2016 | 9.2 (6.6–12.8) | 9.5 (6.0–14.8) | 7.8 (4.5–13.1) | 10.9 (6.8–17.0) | 1.7 (0.5–5.7) | 16.4 (6.7–34.8) ** | −6.9 (−21.2–7.4) | 0.58 (0.23–1.50) | 2.2 (−10.2–14.5) | 4.3 (−18.2–26.9) |
Mexico | MICS 2015 | 7.8 (5.6–10.7) | 8.5 (4.2–16.8) | 6.3 (3.8–10.1) | 10.6 (5.9–18.2) | 6.9 (3.5–13.2) | 5.8 (1.7–18.0) | 2.7 (−6.4–11.9) | 1.47 (0.37–5.84) | −1.3 (−10.5–7.9) | −1.6 (−19.9–16.8) |
Namibia | DHS 2013 | 7.3 (5.5–9.7) | 2.6 (1.2–5.6) | 7.0 (3.5–13.7) | 6.8 (3.6–12.4) | 8.8 (4.2–17.7) | 12.7 (7.4–21.0) | −10.1 (−17.1–−3.1) | 0.21 (0.08–0.53) | 10.2 (2.5–17.9) | 24.0 (9.3–38.8) |
North Macedonia | MICS 2018 | 4.1 (1.7–9.5) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | 12.9 (4.3–32.7) | 3.1 (0.7–12.3) | 5.9 (1.1–25.6) | 0.6 (0.1–4.3) | −0.6 (−1.7–0.6) | 0.00 | −3.5 (−12.2–5.3) | −11.7 (−34.0–10.5) |
Panama | MICS 2013 | 7.7 (5.5–10.8) | 10.1 (6.3–15.6) | 5.6 (2.4–12.9) | 10.4 (5.2–19.7) | 6.2 (1.9–18.1) | 2.0 (0.6–6.8) | 8.0 (2.9–13.2) | 5.00 (1.34–18.70) | −5.4 (−15.0–4.1) | −7.7 (−27.2–11.9) |
Paraguay | MICS 2016 | 5.2 (3.9–6.9) | 6.8 (4.2–11.1) | 3.7 (1.6–8.6) | 2.6 (1.1–5.8) | 8.2 (5.1–13.2) | 3.8 (1.6–8.7) | 3.1 (−1.6–7.7) | 1.81 (0.68–4.82) | −0.4 (−5.8–5.0) | −3.4 (−20.6–13.8) |
Peru | DHS 2019 | 4.7 (3.9–5.7) | 6.3 (4.7–8.3) | 4.0 (2.6–6.0) | 4.9 (3.1–7.6) | 3.3 (2.1–5.4) | 5.0 (2.6–9.2) | 1.3 (−2.3–4.9) | 1.26 (0.63–2.51) | −2.0 (−5.4–1.3) | −6.6 (−18.8–5.6) |
Serbia | MICS 2019 | 3.5 (1.8–6.7) | 7.6 (2.9–18.6) | 6.5 (1.7–21.9) | 1.5 (0.2–10.6) | 4.5 (1.1–16.9) | 0.5 (0.1–3.9) | 7.1 (−0.1–14.3) | 14.01 (1.59–123.87) | −8.4 (−17.0–0.2) | −41.4 (−68.6–−14.3) |
South Africa | DHS 2016 | 8.8 (6.4–12.2) | 9.9 (5.4–17.5) | 10.7 (6.1–18.1) | 6.3 (3.0–13.0) | 6.8 (2.8–16.0) | 10.1 (3.3–26.8) | −0.1 (−12.3–12.0) | 0.99 (0.29–3.30) | −3.0 (−14.2–8.2) | −5.6 (−27.7–16.5) |
Suriname | MICS 2018 | 19.7 (15.5–24.7) | 22.7 (16.3–30.8) | 22.7 (15.7–31.6) | 11.6 (6.2–20.5) | 17.7 (9.0–31.7) | 21.6 (10.8–38.8) | 1.1 (−14.7–16.9) | 1.05 (0.51–2.16) | −6.9 (−22.7–8.9) | −4.8 (−18.4–8.8) |
Thailand | MICS 2019 | 3.1 (1.8–5.4) | 3.1 (1.8–5.4) | 4.1 (1.1–14.4) | 3.6 (1.0–12.2) | 3.8 (1.9–7.5) | 0.1 (0.1–0.4) | 2.9 (1.2–4.7) | 22.11 (6.88–71.01) | −2.4 (−6.2–1.4) | −11.1 (−25.2–3.0) |
Tonga | MICS 2019 | 3.6 (1.4–8.8) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) ** | 7.1 (1.5–27.2) ** | 9.7 (2.2–34.5) ** | 4.2 (1.0–16.2) ** | −4.2 (−10.0–1.7) | 0.00 | 10.8 (0.1–21.4) | 39.8 (16.5–63.1) |
Turkey | DHS 2013 | 5.6 (3.7–8.3) | 7.2 (3.9–12.8) | 6.5 (2.9–13.9) | 7.5 (2.9–17.8) | 1.7 (0.5–5.2) | 3.3 (0.9–11.5) | 3.9 (−2.1–9.8) | 2.16 (0.53–8.75) | −5.5 (−12.1–1.0) | −20.9 (−41.2–−0.7) |
National Average | Quintile 1 (Poorest) | Quintile 5 (Richest) | Excess Change | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Country | Source 1 | Source 2 | Year 1 (95% CI) | Year 2 (95% CI) | Absolute Annual Change (95% CI) | Year 1 (95% CI) | Year 2 (95% CI) | Absolute Annual Change (95% CI) | Year 1 (95% CI) | Year 2 (95% CI) | Absolute Annual Change (95% CI) | Absolute Annual Excess Change (95% CI) |
Median (All Countries) | 10⋅2 (6.6–13.8) | 7.3 (4.1–10.5) | −0.20 (−0.47–0.07) | 13.1 (7.3–18.8) | 9.4 (4.2–14.6) | −0.16 (−0.53–0.22) | 4.3 (2.2–6.4) | 4.4 (2.8–6.0) | −0.04 (−0.26–0.18) | −0.03 (−0.38–0.31) | ||
Low-Income Countries | ||||||||||||
Median (Low-Income Countries) | 15.8 (8.8–22.8) | 9.2 (0.9–17.4) | −0.26 (−1.05–0.54) | 26.1 (16.7–35.5) | 14.9 (3.1–26.7) | −0.44 (−1.40–0.51) | 6.7 (2.6–10.8) | 5.4 (2.2–8.6) | −0.04 (−0.49–0.41) | −0.13 (−0.88–0.62) | ||
Burkina Faso | DHS 2003 | DHS 2010 | 23.9 (19.9–28.5) | 5.6 (4.5–7.1) | −2.61 (−3.25–−1.97) | 32.9 (25.7–41.1) | 9.3 (6.5–13.3) | −3.37 (−4.58–−2.17) | 11.8 (7.6–17.9) | 2.8 (1.3–5.7) | −1.28 (−2.06–−0.51) | −2.09 (−3.52–−0.65) |
Burundi | MICS 2005 | DHS 2016 | 11.2 (9.2–13.5) | 0.8 (0.5–1.2) | −0.94 (−1.14–−0.75) | 10.8 (7.4–15.6) | 1.9 (0.9–3.6) | −0.82 (−1.20–−0.43) | 13.3 (8.5–20.3) | 0.7 (0.3–2.0) | −1.14 (−1.68–−0.61) | 0.33 (−0.33–0.98) |
Central African Republic | MICS 2006 | MICS 2018 | 36.2 (31.8–40.8) | 45.0 (41.7–48.3) | 0.73 (0.27–1.20) | 48.8 (39.6–58.0) | 59.6 (52.9–66.0) | 0.90 (−0.05–1.85) | 17.7 (12.0–25.3) | 17.4 (13.3–22.5) | −0.02 (−0.69–0.65) | 0.92 (−0.24–2.09) |
Democratic Republic of the Congo | DHS 2007 | MICS 2017 | 29.4 (25.1–34.1) | 34.1 (30.2–38.2) | 0.46 (−0.13–1.06) | 44.6 (36.2–53.3) | 47.4 (41.1–53.8) | 0.28 (−0.79–1.35) | 6.2 (3.7–10.3) | 14.7 (10.3–20.6) | 0.85 (0.24–1.45) | −0.57 (−1.80–0.66) |
Ethiopia | DHS 2005 | DHS 2019 | 41.8 (37.8–45.9) | 23.7 (19.2–28.9) | −1.29 (−1.74–−0.84) | 52.6 (46.3–58.9) | 41.2 (30.4–52.8) | −0.82 (−1.75–0.11) | 27.8 (20.4–36.8) | 5.2 (2.2–12.0) | −1.62 (−2.28–−0.95) | 0.79 (−0.35–1.94) |
Gambia | MICS 2005 | MICS 2018 | 3.7 (2.8–5.0) | 3.2 (2.2–4.7) | −0.04 (−0.17–0.09) | 2.4 (1.3–4.6) | 3.7 (1.9–6.9) | 0.10 (−0.12–0.31) | 4.3 (2.2–8.0) | 2.3 (0.6–8.5) | −0.15 (−0.47–0.16) | 0.25 (−0.13–0.63) |
Guinea | DHS 2005 | DHS 2018 | 22.8 (19.3–26.6) | 37.7 (34.1–41.4) | 1.15 (0.75–1.54) | 32.5 (23.8–42.7) | 55.4 (47.2–63.2) | 1.76 (0.80–2.71) | 12.1 (7.0–20.0) | 19.0 (13.6–26.0) | 0.54 (−0.14–1.22) | 1.22 (0.05–2.39) |
Guinea-Bissau | MICS 2006 | MICS 2018 | 15.8 (13.2–18.8) | 7.0 (5.2–9.4) | −0.73 (−1.02–−0.44) | 19.0 (13.4–26.1) | 7.4 (4.1–12.9) | −0.96 (−1.59–−0.33) | 6.7 (3.4–12.8) | 7.6 (3.6–15.3) | 0.07 (−0.52–0.67) | −1.04 (−1.90–−0.17) |
Liberia | DHS 2007 | DHS 2019 | 24.7 (20.4–29.5) | 8.6 (6.3–11.5) | −1.34 (−1.77–−0.91) | 39.3 (30.8–48.5) | 11.4 (8.1–15.9) | −2.32 (−3.12–−1.52) | 11.2 (6.2–19.3) | 0.2 (0.0–1.2) | −0.92 (−1.45–−0.39) | −1.41 (−2.37–−0.44) |
Madagascar | DHS 2008 | MICS 2018 | 15.8 (13.7–18.2) | 28.5 (25.9–31.2) | 1.27 (0.92–1.62) | 31.1 (26.1–36.6) | 48.0 (43.2–52.8) | 1.69 (0.98–2.40) | 3.7 (1.9–7.1) | 10.9 (7.6–15.3) | 0.71 (0.26–1.16) | 0.98 (0.13–1.82) |
Malawi | MICS 2006 | DHS 2015 | 3.6 (2.9–4.4) | 2.6 (1.9–3.5) | −0.11 (−0.23–0.02) | 4.1 (2.6–6.5) | 3.5 (2.0–5.9) | −0.07 (−0.37–0.22) | 2.9 (1.7–4.8) | 2.5 (1.2–5.2) | −0.04 (−0.30–0.23) | −0.03 (−0.43–0.36) |
Mali | MICS 2009 | DHS 2018 | 14.2 (12.7–15.9) | 17.9 (15.1–21.1) | 0.41 (0.04–0.78) | 25.9 (21.9–30.3) | 28.6 (21.7–36.7) | 0.31 (−0.65–1.27) | 5.0 (3.0–8.1) | 7.4 (4.8–11.2) | 0.27 (−0.17–0.71) | 0.04 (−1.02–1.09) |
Mozambique | DHS 2003 | DHS 2015 | 12.4 (10.1–15.2) | 10.0 (6.8–14.4) | −0.20 (−0.58–0.17) | 26.1 (20.2–32.9) | 19.4 (13.0–27.9) | −0.56 (−1.37–0.26) | 1.0 (0.2–4.9) | 2.7 (1.1–6.4) | 0.14 (−0.09–0.38) | −0.70 (−1.55–0.15) |
Niger | DHS 2006 | DHS 2012 | 41.6 (37.6–45.7) | 13.8 (11.6–16.5) | −4.63 (−5.42–−3.84) | 54.1 (44.9–63.0) | 22.0 (17.4–27.4) | −5.35 (−7.07–−3.63) | 14.8 (10.8–20.0) | 7.2 (4.9–10.7) | −1.27 (−2.16–−0.37) | −4.08 (−6.02–−2.14) |
Rwanda | DHS 2005 | DHS 2014 | 3.2 (2.0–5.2) | 0.9 (0.5–1.7) | −0.26 (−0.44–−0.08) | 4.0 (1.6–9.2) | 1.9 (0.8–4.5) | −0.23 (−0.65–0.19) | 1.9 (0.9–4.1) | 1.1 (0.3–3.2) | −0.09 (−0.30–0.12) | −0.13 (−0.60–0.34) |
Sierra Leone | DHS 2008 | DHS 2019 | 23.2 (19.9–26.8) | 5.4 (4.2–6.9) | −1.62 (−1.96–−1.29) | 25.7 (18.7–34.1) | 6.6 (4.4–9.9) | −1.73 (−2.47–−0.98) | 14.9 (9.7–22.2) | 4.4 (2.0–9.5) | −0.96 (−1.60–−0.31) | −0.77 (−1.76–0.21) |
Togo | MICS 2006 | MICS 2017 | 15.3 (12.3–18.9) | 9.2 (6.8–12.2) | −0.56 (−0.94–−0.18) | 19.0 (13.0–26.8) | 14.9 (10.4–20.9) | −0.37 (−1.15–0.41) | 4.6 (1.9–10.8) | 8.0 (4.0–15.3) | 0.31 (−0.30–0.92) | −0.68 (−1.68–0.31) |
Uganda | DHS 2006 | DHS 2016 | 10.2 (8.5–12.2) | 5.1 (4.1–6.3) | −0.51 (−0.72–−0.30) | 9.1 (6.1–13.4) | 4.7 (3.2–6.9) | −0.44 (−0.84–−0.04) | 11.2 (7.5–16.3) | 5.4 (3.2–9.0) | −0.58 (−1.09–−0.07) | 0.14 (−0.51–0.79) |
Yemen | MICS 2006 | DHS 2013 | 24.6 (20.0–29.9) | 23.4 (21.2–25.8) | −0.17 (−0.95–0.60) | 40.4 (30.8–50.8) | 32.5 (26.9–38.6) | −1.14 (−2.80–0.52) | 3.7 (1.5–8.7) | 9.5 (7.0–12.9) | 0.83 (0.21–1.46) | −1.97 (−3.74–−0.19) |
Lower–Middle-Income Countries | ||||||||||||
Median (Lower–Middle-Income Countries) | 9.0 (3.9–14.1) | 8.0 (4.2–11.9) | −0.23 (−0.45–−0.01) | 16.8 (8.8–24.9) | 13.3 (6.6–20.0) | −0.10 (−0.49–0.29) | 4.1 (1.4–6.8) | 3.6 (1.8–5.4) | −0.13 (−0.38–0.12) | 0.05 (−0.39–0.49) | ||
Benin | DHS 2006 | DHS 2017 | 16.0 (14.3–17.9) | 15.8 (13.8–17.9) | −0.02 (−0.27–0.22) | 30.2 (26.0–34.7) | 32.4 (26.8–38.6) | 0.20 (−0.46–0.87) | 4.4 (2.8–6.9) | 6.9 (4.6–10.2) | 0.23 (−0.08–0.53) | −0.02 (−0.76–0.71) |
Cambodia | DHS 2005 | DHS 2014 | 9.4 (7.7–11.6) | 6.0 (4.6–7.9) | −0.38 (−0.66–−0.10) | 13.1 (9.4–17.8) | 11.7 (8.3–16.2) | −0.16 (−0.79–0.48) | 9.0 (5.0–15.7) | 0.6 (0.2–1.7) | −0.93 (−1.51–−0.35) | 0.77 (−0.08–1.63) |
Cameroon | MICS 2006 | DHS 2018 | 11.3 (9.0–14.2) | 16.7 (14.2–19.5) | 0.45 (0.14–0.75) | 19.5 (13.7–27.0) | 29.9 (23.8–36.8) | 0.87 (0.09–1.64) | 3.4 (1.2–9.3) | 4.9 (2.8–8.2) | 0.12 (−0.24–0.49) | 0.74 (−0.11–1.60) |
Congo | DHS 2005 | MICS 2014 | 14.7 (11.3–18.9) | 14.0 (12.0–16.3) | −0.08 (−0.56–0.40) | 31.9 (22.3–43.3) | 28.5 (23.9–33.4) | −0.38 (−1.66–0.89) | 0.3 (0.0–2.1) | 8.7 (4.7–15.7) | 0.94 (0.35–1.53) | −1.32 (−2.73–0.08) |
Côte d’Ivoire | MICS 2006 | MICS 2016 | 18.7 (14.9–23.0) | 19.6 (17.3–22.2) | 0.10 (−0.37–0.57) | 35.3 (26.7–45.0) | 29.6 (24.7–34.9) | −0.58 (−1.63–0.48) | 1.9 (0.7–5.3) | 11.3 (6.4–19.0) | 0.94 (0.29–1.58) | −1.51 (−2.75–−0.27) |
Egypt | DHS 2005 | DHS 2014 | 0.9 (0.3–2.4) | 0.6 (0.3–1.1) | −0.03 (−0.09–0.03) | 1.0 (0.1–8.0) | 1.2 (0.4–4.0) | 0.03 (−0.17–0.22) | 0.6 (0.0–11.4) | 0.3 (0.0–1.7) | −0.04 (−0.15–0.07) | 0.06 (−0.16–0.29) |
Eswatini | DHS 2006 | MICS 2014 | 4.0 (2.4–6.7) | 3.4 (2.1–5.6) | −0.08 (−0.41–0.25) | 3.6 (1.3–9.2) | 4.7 (1.9–11.3) | 0.14 (−0.54–0.82) | 5.8 (2.0–15.6) | 2.6 (0.7–8.8) | −0.40 (−1.25–0.44) | 0.54 (−0.54–1.62) |
Ghana | DHS 2008 | MICS 2017 | 2.0 (1.1–3.6) | 4.0 (2.8–5.8) | 0.23 (0.02–0.44) | 1.6 (0.5–5.6) | 5.4 (2.9–9.8) | 0.42 (−0.01–0.84) | 1.3 (0.2–9.3) | 2.2 (0.9–5.5) | 0.09 (−0.28–0.47) | 0.32 (−0.24–0.89) |
Haiti | DHS 2005 | DHS 2016 | 17.0 (13.9–20.6) | 16.5 (13.3–20.1) | −0.05 (−0.48–0.39) | 18.5 (14.0–24.0) | 25.1 (18.9–32.5) | 0.60 (−0.17–1.36) | 12.2 (6.8–21.0) | 4.4 (1.3–14.1) | −0.71 (−1.51–0.08) | 1.31 (0.21–2.41) |
Honduras | DHS 2005 | DHS 2011 | 0.8 (0.4–1.5) | 0.9 (0.5–1.5) | 0.02 (−0.10–0.13) | 0.4 (0.1–1.5) | 0.8 (0.2–2.6) | 0.07 (−0.11–0.25) | 2.2 (0.7–6.8) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | −0.36 (−0.78–0.06) | 0.43 (−0.03–0.89) |
India | DHS 2005 | DHS 2015 | 24.0 (22.6–25.5) | 10.5 (10.1–10.9) | −1.35 (−1.51–−1.20) | 40.0 (36.7–43.3) | 15.8 (15.0–16.7) | −2.42 (−2.76–−2.07) | 6.5 (5.1–8.2) | 7.1 (5.8–8.5) | 0.06 (−0.15–0.27) | −2.47 (−2.87–−2.07) |
Indonesia | DHS 2007 | DHS 2017 | 15.6 (13.9–17.5) | 11.1 (9.8–12.7) | −0.45 (−0.68–−0.21) | 32.9 (28.7–37.4) | 16.2 (13.3–19.7) | −1.67 (−2.21–−1.13) | 6.6 (4.4–9.7) | 7.6 (5.4–10.6) | 0.10 (−0.26–0.46) | −1.77 (−2.42–−1.12) |
Kenya | DHS 2003 | DHS 2014 | 10.8 (8.4–13.7) | 2.5 (1.9–3.3) | −0.75 (−1.00–−0.51) | 25.7 (18.6–34.3) | 5.2 (3.8–6.9) | −1.86 (−2.59–−1.14) | 5.1 (2.6–9.8) | 2.2 (0.8–5.9) | −0.27 (−0.63–0.10) | −1.60 (−2.41–−0.78) |
Lao People’s Democratic Republic | MICS 2006 | MICS 2017 | 36.1 (30.6–41.9) | 27.1 (24.7–29.7) | −0.81 (−1.37–−0.25) | 42.9 (33.8–52.6) | 43.3 (38.0–48.7) | 0.03 (−0.96–1.02) | 25.7 (15.2–40.0) | 14.6 (10.8–19.5) | −1.01 (−2.20–0.19) | 1.04 (−0.52–2.59) |
Lesotho | DHS 2009 | MICS 2018 | 4.3 (3.0–6.1) | 8.5 (6.3–11.2) | 0.46 (0.15–0.78) | 9.0 (5.7–13.9) | 17.0 (11.0–25.3) | 0.89 (−0.01–1.79) | 2.4 (0.6–9.2) | 8.5 (3.8–18.2) | 0.68 (−0.16–1.51) | 0.21 (−1.02–1.44) |
Mauritania | MICS 2007 | MICS 2015 | 19.3 (16.8–22.1) | 14.2 (12.1–16.6) | −0.64 (−1.08–−0.21) | 29.3 (23.7–35.6) | 25.0 (19.0–32.2) | −0.53 (−1.64–0.59) | 13.7 (9.5–19.5) | 4.1 (1.8–8.9) | −1.20 (−1.94–−0.46) | 0.68 (−0.66–2.01) |
Mongolia | MICS 2005 | MICS 2018 | 2.9 (1.7–4.9) | 3.0 (1.9–4.5) | 0.00 (−0.15–0.16) | 4.5 (2.0–10.1) | 3.6 (1.8–6.9) | −0.07 (−0.41–0.27) | 3.0 (0.7–12.2) | 1.6 (0.4–6.3) | −0.11 (−0.49–0.27) | 0.04 (−0.47–0.55) |
Nepal | DHS 2006 | MICS 2019 | 7.3 (5.1–10.5) | 10.5 (8.5–13.0) | 0.25 (−0.02–0.51) | 16.6 (10.5–25.1) | 13.8 (10.1–18.7) | −0.21 (−0.85–0.43) | 3.0 (0.7–12.4) | 6.6 (3.6–12.0) | 0.28 (−0.17–0.74) | −0.49 (−1.28–0.29) |
Nigeria | DHS 2008 | DHS 2018 | 48.0 (45.7–50.2) | 34.7 (32.7–36.7) | −1.33 (−1.63–−1.03) | 77.4 (74.0–80.4) | 59.8 (56.0–63.4) | −1.76 (−2.25–−1.27) | 12.5 (10.1–15.5) | 6.6 (4.9–8.8) | −0.60 (−0.93–−0.27) | −1.17 (−1.75–−0.58) |
Pakistan | DHS 2006 | DHS 2017 | 25.2 (22.7–27.9) | 13.7 (11.2–16.5) | −1.05 (−1.39–−0.71) | 47.4 (40.8–54.2) | 30.8 (23.7–38.9) | −1.51 (−2.44–−0.59) | 11.4 (7.6–16.8) | 3.1 (1.6–6.0) | −0.75 (−1.21–−0.30) | −0.76 (−1.79–0.27) |
Philippines | DHS 2008 | DHS 2017 | 7.5 (6.1–9.3) | 13.4 (11.5–15.5) | 0.65 (0.37–0.94) | 17.1 (13.0–22.1) | 23.6 (19.8–28.0) | 0.73 (0.05–1.40) | 1.5 (0.3–6.7) | 5.6 (2.6–11.5) | 0.46 (−0.07–0.98) | 0.27 (−0.59–1.13) |
Republic of Moldova | DHS 2005 | MICS 2012 | 1.7 (0.7–4.1) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | −0.25 (−0.46–−0.03) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) * | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) * | 0.00 (0.00–0.00) | 2.6 (0.6–10.2) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | −0.37 (−0.88–0.14) | 0.37 (−0.14–0.88) |
Sao Tome and Principe | DHS 2008 | MICS 2019 | 6.4 (4.0–10.0) | 2.3 (1.1–4.7) | −0.37 (−0.67–−0.07) | 6.0 (2.6–13.4) | 6.5 (2.7–14.8) | 0.05 (−0.62–0.72) | 8.1 (3.0–20.2) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | −0.74 (−1.44–−0.04) | 0.79 (−0.18–1.76) |
Senegal | DHS 2005 | DHS 2019 | 6.8 (5.4–8.6) | 3.8 (2.6–5.6) | −0.21 (−0.37–−0.06) | 8.2 (5.5–11.9) | 8.9 (5.3–14.6) | 0.05 (−0.34–0.45) | 2.5 (0.9–6.5) | 0.5 (0.1–2.4) | −0.14 (−0.32–0.04) | 0.19 (−0.24–0.63) |
Tajikistan | MICS 2005 | DHS 2017 | 7.0 (4.9–9.9) | 7.6 (6.1–9.4) | 0.05 (−0.20–0.30) | 9.6 (4.9–17.9) | 8.1 (5.1–12.6) | −0.12 (−0.72–0.48) | 5.3 (2.6–10.5) | 10.5 (7.3–14.8) | 0.43 (−0.00–0.87) | −0.55 (−1.30–0.19) |
Timor-Leste | DHS 2009 | DHS 2016 | 24.9 (22.2–27.9) | 21.6 (18.8–24.7) | −0.47 (−1.05–0.11) | 35.6 (30.2–41.4) | 36.0 (29.2–43.4) | 0.05 (−1.24–1.35) | 16.7 (12.2–22.5) | 9.8 (5.8–15.9) | −0.99 (−2.00–0.02) | 1.05 (−0.60–2.69) |
United Republic of Tanzania | DHS 2004 | DHS 2015 | 6.7 (4.9–9.0) | 3.0 (2.2–4.2) | −0.33 (−0.53–−0.12) | 12.4 (8.2–18.3) | 6.6 (4.4–9.7) | −0.53 (−1.04–−0.02) | 2.4 (0.6–8.7) | 1.2 (0.4–3.8) | −0.11 (−0.42–0.20) | −0.42 (−1.01–0.18) |
Viet Nam | DHS 2002 | MICS 2013 | 11.7 (8.3–16.3) | 3.8 (2.6–5.5) | −0.72 (−1.10–−0.34) | 28.1 (19.4–38.9) | 12.7 (8.2–19.3) | −1.40 (−2.41–−0.39) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | 0.7 (0.1–5.0) | 0.06 (−0.06–0.19) | −1.46 (−2.48–−0.44) |
Zambia | DHS 2007 | DHS 2018 | 7.7 (5.9–10.0) | 2.1 (1.4–3.1) | −0.51 (−0.71–−0.31) | 7.2 (4.5–11.5) | 3.1 (1.8–5.5) | −0.37 (−0.72–−0.02) | 3.7 (1.6–8.4) | 1.0 (0.2–4.1) | −0.25 (−0.56–0.06) | −0.12 (−0.58–0.34) |
Zimbabwe | MICS 2009 | MICS 2019 | 8.6 (7.0–10.6) | 5.5 (3.9–7.6) | −0.31 (−0.57–−0.05) | 12.3 (8.7–17.3) | 8.0 (4.3–14.4) | −0.43 (−1.08–0.21) | 5.6 (2.8–10.8) | 1.7 (0.6–4.6) | −0.38 (−0.80–0.03) | −0.05 (−0.81–0.72) |
Upper–Middle-Income Countries | ||||||||||||
Median (Upper–Middle-Income Countries) | 5.2 (0.6–9.7) | 4.6 (1.6–7.6) | 0.02 (−0.38–0.42) | 8.5 (0.3–16.6) | 6.3 (2.3–10.2) | −0.05 (−0.78–0.68) | 2.3 (−2.1–6.6) | 4.2 (0.1–8.3) | 0.06 (−0.48–0.61) | −0.14 (−0.80–0.52) | ||
Albania | DHS 2008 | DHS 2017 | 0.5 (0.1–3.4) | 0.5 (0.1–1.8) | 0.00 (−0.12–0.12) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | 0.9 (0.1–6.2) | 0.10 (−0.10–0.30) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) * | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) * | 0.00 (0.00–0.00) | 0.10 (−0.10–0.30) |
Armenia | DHS 2005 | DHS 2015 | 5.5 (2.9–10.0) | 1.5 (0.7–3.3) | −0.39 (−0.74–−0.04) | 6.5 (2.1–18.4) | 1.6 (0.4–6.2) | −0.49 (−1.23–0.24) | 0.7 (0.1–5.1) * | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | −0.07 (−0.21–0.07) | −0.42 (−1.17–0.32) |
Bosnia and Herzegovina | MICS 2006 | MICS 2011 | 6.0 (4.2–8.3) | 3.0 (1.8–4.9) | −0.59 (−1.09–−0.09) | 12.5 (7.6–19.8) | 4.7 (1.7–12.3) | −1.57 (−3.09–−0.05) | 4.3 (1.9–9.6) | 1.6 (0.4–6.1) | −0.55 (−1.37–0.28) | −1.02 (−2.75–0.71) |
Dominican Republic | DHS 2002 | MICS 2014 | 5.0 (4.0–6.2) | 8.9 (7.7–10.2) | 0.32 (0.18–0.46) | 9.4 (7.2–12.2) | 14.1 (11.5–17.1) | 0.39 (0.07–0.70) | 4.8 (2.3–9.6) | 6.3 (4.1–9.7) | 0.13 (−0.24–0.49) | 0.26 (−0.22–0.74) |
Gabon | DHS 2000 | DHS 2012 | 30.6 (27.0–34.5) | 11.6 (9.0–14.7) | −1.59 (−1.98–−1.20) | 50.8 (45.2–56.4) | 18.1 (13.9–23.3) | −2.72 (−3.33–−2.12) | 21.2 (13.7–31.3) | 8.5 (2.3–26.5) | −1.06 (−2.19–0.08) | −1.67 (−2.95–−0.38) |
Guyana | MICS 2006 | MICS 2014 | 6.3 (4.0–10.0) | 4.4 (2.7–7.2) | −0.23 (−0.69–0.22) | 8.2 (4.1–15.7) | 6.3 (3.6–10.7) | −0.24 (−1.05–0.57) | 2.1 (0.3–13.7) | 1.9 (0.5–7.3) | −0.03 (−0.63–0.57) | −0.21 (−1.22–0.80) |
Jordan | DHS 2007 | DHS 2017 | 1.1 (0.6–2.3) | 7.4 (5.7–9.7) | 0.63 (0.41–0.84) | 1.3 (0.4–3.7) | 9.4 (6.3–13.9) | 0.82 (0.42–1.21) | 2.0 (0.3–12.4) | 7.5 (2.5–20.0) | 0.55 (−0.32–1.41) | 0.27 (−0.68–1.22) |
Kazakhstan | MICS 2006 | MICS 2015 | 0.9 (0.4–2.0) | 4.4 (3.2–6.0) | 0.38 (0.21–0.56) | 0.9 (0.2–3.6) | 3.6 (1.6–7.6) | 0.29 (−0.04–0.63) | 1.0 (0.1–6.9) | 8.0 (3.9–15.7) | 0.77 (0.12–1.43) | −0.48 (−1.22–0.26) |
Maldives | DHS 2009 | DHS 2016 | 1.2 (0.6–2.4) | 9.2 (6.6–12.8) | 1.15 (0.70–1.60) | 1.0 (0.2–4.3) | 9.5 (6.0–14.8) | 1.21 (0.56–1.87) | 1.3 (0.2–8.2) | 16.4 (6.7–34.8) * | 2.16 (0.18–4.14) | −0.95 (−3.03–1.13) |
Namibia | DHS 2006 | DHS 2013 | 5.3 (3.8–7.4) | 7.3 (5.5–9.7) | 0.29 (−0.11–0.68) | 10.2 (5.8–17.2) | 2.6 (1.2–5.6) | −1.08 (−1.92–−0.25) | 1.8 (0.6–4.8) | 12.7 (7.4–21.0) | 1.56 (0.57–2.55) | −2.65 (−3.94–−1.35) |
North Macedonia | MICS 2005 | MICS 2018 | 10.6 (6.9–16.0) | 4.1 (1.7–9.5) | −0.50 (−0.94–−0.07) | 12.6 (8.9–17.5) | 0.0 (0.0–0.0) | −0.97 (−1.30–−0.64) | 18.2 (10.0–30.9) | 0.6 (0.1–4.3) | −1.35 (−2.15–−0.55) | 0.38 (−0.48–1.25) |
Peru | DHS 2009 | DHS 2019 | 4.3 (3.2–5.6) | 4.7 (3.9–5.7) | 0.05 (−0.10–0.20) | 4.3 (2.8–6.6) | 6.3 (4.7–8.3) | 0.19 (−0.07–0.45) | 2.4 (0.5–10.5) | 5.0 (2.6–9.2) | 0.26 (−0.23–0.74) | −0.06 (−0.61–0.48) |
Serbia | MICS 2005 | MICS 2019 | 4.3 (2.9–6.5) | 3.5 (1.8–6.7) | −0.06 (−0.26–0.15) | 8.7 (4.7–15.6) | 7.6 (2.9–18.6) | −0.08 (−0.71–0.56) | 3.4 (1.1–9.9) | 0.5 (0.1–3.9) | −0.20 (−0.48–0.07) | 0.13 (−0.56–0.82) |
Suriname | MICS 2006 | MICS 2018 | 10.1 (7.3–13.9) | 19.7 (15.5–24.7) | 0.80 (0.33–1.27) | 9.0 (4.9–15.9) | 22.7 (16.3–30.8) | 1.14 (0.39–1.89) | 12.4 (6.4–22.4) | 21.6 (10.8–38.8) | 0.77 (−0.56–2.11) | 0.37 (−1.16–1.89) |
Thailand | MICS 2005 | MICS 2019 | 2.5 (1.7–3.8) | 3.1 (1.8–5.4) | 0.04 (−0.10–0.18) | 3.4 (1.9–6.2) | 3.1 (1.8–5.4) | −0.03 (−0.22–0.17) | 2.4 (0.6–9.4) | 0.1 (0.1–0.4) | −0.16 (−0.41–0.08) | 0.14 (−0.17–0.45) |
Turkey | DHS 2003 | DHS 2013 | 11.5 (9.0–14.7) | 5.6 (3.7–8.3) | −0.59 (−0.96–−0.23) | 31.0 (23.6–39.6) | 7.2 (3.9–12.8) | −2.38 (−3.28–−1.48) | 1.1 (0.2–5.2) | 3.3 (0.9–11.5) | 0.22 (−0.23–0.68) | −2.60 (−3.61–−1.59) |
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Bergen, N.; Cata-Preta, B.O.; Schlotheuber, A.; Santos, T.M.; Danovaro-Holliday, M.C.; Mengistu, T.; Sodha, S.V.; Hogan, D.R.; Barros, A.J.D.; Hosseinpoor, A.R. Economic-Related Inequalities in Zero-Dose Children: A Study of Non-Receipt of Diphtheria–Tetanus–Pertussis Immunization Using Household Health Survey Data from 89 Low- and Middle-Income Countries. Vaccines 2022, 10, 633. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10040633
Bergen N, Cata-Preta BO, Schlotheuber A, Santos TM, Danovaro-Holliday MC, Mengistu T, Sodha SV, Hogan DR, Barros AJD, Hosseinpoor AR. Economic-Related Inequalities in Zero-Dose Children: A Study of Non-Receipt of Diphtheria–Tetanus–Pertussis Immunization Using Household Health Survey Data from 89 Low- and Middle-Income Countries. Vaccines. 2022; 10(4):633. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10040633
Chicago/Turabian StyleBergen, Nicole, Bianca O. Cata-Preta, Anne Schlotheuber, Thiago M. Santos, M. Carolina Danovaro-Holliday, Tewodaj Mengistu, Samir V. Sodha, Daniel R. Hogan, Aluisio J. D. Barros, and Ahmad Reza Hosseinpoor. 2022. "Economic-Related Inequalities in Zero-Dose Children: A Study of Non-Receipt of Diphtheria–Tetanus–Pertussis Immunization Using Household Health Survey Data from 89 Low- and Middle-Income Countries" Vaccines 10, no. 4: 633. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10040633
APA StyleBergen, N., Cata-Preta, B. O., Schlotheuber, A., Santos, T. M., Danovaro-Holliday, M. C., Mengistu, T., Sodha, S. V., Hogan, D. R., Barros, A. J. D., & Hosseinpoor, A. R. (2022). Economic-Related Inequalities in Zero-Dose Children: A Study of Non-Receipt of Diphtheria–Tetanus–Pertussis Immunization Using Household Health Survey Data from 89 Low- and Middle-Income Countries. Vaccines, 10(4), 633. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10040633