Redox-Modulating Capacity and Antineoplastic Activity of Wastewater Obtained from the Distillation of the Essential Oils of Four Bulgarian Oil-Bearing Roses
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Compounds | Relаtive Content (%) 1 | Activity | Observations | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Gallic acid | 3.85–9.28 | Anticancer Antioxidant | Inhibits cell proliferation, reduces cell viability and induces apoptosis and ferroptosis Free radical scavenger and metal chelator | [24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34] [28,29,31,33,34,35] |
Protocatechuic acid | 0.01–0.8 | Anticancer Antioxidant | Inhibits cancer cell metastasis Induces cell cycle arrest and apoptosis through multiple signaling pathways from the mitogen-activated protein kinase Reduces (Fe3+), reducеs (Cu2+), scavenges superoxide anion radicals and hydroxyl radicals, chelates (Fe2+) and (Cu2+) | [36] [37,38] |
Corilagin | 0.23–0.45 | Anti-tumor Antioxidant | Affects the signaling pathways of tumor cells; induces apoptosis Decreases malondialdehyde levels; restores the superoxide dismutase and glutathione activity; elevates the Nrf2 and heme oxygenase-1 levels in rat cerebral ischemia | [39,40,41] [39] |
Proanthocyanin B2 | 0.01–0.75 | Antineoplastic Antioxidant | Inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis of osteosarcoma cells Reduces oxidative stress in human granulosa cells | [42,43] [44] |
Catechin | 0.4–5.16 | Anticancer Antioxidant | Inhibits cancer cell proliferation Scavenges free radicals and retards extracellular matrix degradation induced by ultraviolet (UV) radiation and pollution | [45] [45] |
Chlorogenic acid | <0.01 | Anticancer Antioxidant | Serves as chemosensitizer in suppressing tumor growth through a metabolic pathway Activates ERK1/2 and inhibits proliferation of osteosarcoma cells Takes part in the control of oxidative and inflammatory stress conditions; protects DNA against oxidative damage | [46,47] [46,48] |
Epicatechin | 0.01–0.35 | Anticancer Antioxidant | Suppress tumor cell growth Protects the bovine spermatozoa subjected to induced oxidative stress | [49] [50] |
Ellagic acid | 10.98–16.88 | Anticancer Antioxidant | Inhibits the proliferation of prostate cancer cells; enhances the antitumor efficacy of bevacizumab in an in vitro glioblastoma model Radical scavenging activity—good scavenger of peroxynitrite | [51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60] |
Rutin | <0.01 | Anticancer Antioxidant | Anticancer activity in combination with ionic liquids in renal cells; regulation of different cellular signaling pathways Inhibits lipid peroxidation, xanthine oxidase, H2O2 generation, and lactate dehydrogenase | [61,62,63,64,65,66,67] [65,66,67,68] |
Isoquercetin | 0.43–5.98 | Anticancer Antioxidant | Serves as adjunct therapy in patients with kidney cancer; inhibits bladder cancer cells; antineoplastic activity; Radical scavenging effect | [61,69,70,71,72,73] |
Avicularin | 0.01–5.18 | Anticancer Antioxidant | Ameliorates human hepatocellular carcinoma via the regulation of NF-κB/COX-2/PPAR-γ activities; antineoplastic activity; DPPH and OH radical scavenging effect Shows protective effect against oxidative stress induced by hydrogen peroxide by inhibiting the formation of reactive oxygen species, reducing lipid peroxidation and cell death | [74,75,76] [74,75] |
Quercetin | 0.16–1.25 | Anticancer Antioxidant | Antagonizes the cytotoxic effects of antineoplastic drugs in ovarian cancer; enhances the antiproliferative activity of cis-diamminedichloroplatinum(II); ribavirin and quercetin synergistically downregulate signal transduction, and are cytotoxic in human ovarian carcinoma cells; inhibits neck cancer; synergizes with 2-methoxyestradiol, inhibiting cell growth and inducing apoptosis in human prostate cancer cells; Scavenges intracellular free radicals | [77,78,79,80,81] [82,83,84] |
Kaempferol | 0.04–0.56 | Anticancer Antioxidant | Anticancer potential on head and neck cancers; regulates apoptosis in diverse cancer cell models; antineoplastic activity; inhibits experimental hepatocarcinogenesis Inhibits lipid peroxidation and normalizes activities of antioxidant enzymes; radical scavenging effect | [78,85,86,87] [87,88] |
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Preparation of Wastewater from the Industrial Cycle of Water–Steam Distillation of Rose Oil
2.2. LC-MS of Wastewater of Rosa damascena Mill., Rosa alba L., Rosa gallica L., and Rosa centifolia L.
2.2.1. Sample Preparations
2.2.2. Chromatographic Separation and Mass Spectrometric Conditions
2.2.3. Determination of Tannins, Flavonoids, and Total Polyphenols
2.3. Cell Lines and Culture Conditions
2.4. Cell Viability Assay
2.5. Mathematical Modelling of Cytotoxic Effects and Redox-Modulating Capacities of Wastewaters
2.6. Detection of Apoptosis with Annexin V
2.7. Caspase Activity Assay
2.8. Detection of Intracellular Reactive Oxygen Species Generation
2.9. Induction of Cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) In Vitro
2.10. Redox-Modulating Capacity of Wastewater from the Industrial Cycle of Water–Steam Distillation of Rose Oil
2.10.1. Ferric-Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP)
2.10.2. Cupric-Reducing Antioxidant Capacity (CUPRAC) Assay
2.10.3. Fe (II)-Chelating Assay
2.11. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Chromatographic Profile and Content of Tannins, Flavonoids, and Total Polyphenols
3.2. Cytotoxicity of Wastewaters
3.3. Detection of Apoptosis by Annexin V and Caspase 3/7 Activity
3.4. Detection of Intracellular ROS Generation
3.5. Effects of Rose Wastewaters on the Expression of the Enzyme CYP3A4
3.6. Redox-Modulating Capacity of Rose Wastеwaters
4. Discussion
- -
- -
- The water extract of petals was not cytotoxic to murine Ehrlich ascites carcinoma cells and peripheral blood leukocytes [110];
- -
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Wastewater | 2 Tannins (mg/mL) | 1 Total Flavonoids (mg/mL) | 3 Total Polyphenols (mg/mL) |
---|---|---|---|
Rosa damascena Mill. | 1.61 ± 0.05 | 1.14 ± 0.01 | 7.2 ± 0.2 |
Rosa alba L. | 2.16 ± 0.35 | 1.00 ± 0.01 | 7.6 ± 0.3 |
Rosa gallica L. | 1.51 ± 0.09 | 0.37 ± 0.02 | 7.7 ± 0.03 |
Rosa centifolia L. | 2.47 ± 0.05 | 0.61 ± 0.04 | 7.8 ± 0.22 |
Cell Line | Model Parameters | WW from R. centifolia L. | WW from R. gallica L. | WW from R. damascene Mill. | WW from R. alba L. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
HEP-G2 | HillSlope | 0.795 | 1.115 | 0.988 | 1.017 |
IC50 | 0.45% * (=35.1 µg GAE **/mL) | 1.01% (=77.77 µg GAE/mL) | 1.049% (=75.53 µg GAE/mL) | 0.622% (=47.27 µg GAE/mL) | |
R (correlation coefficient) | 0.997 | 0.994 | 0.993 | 0.997 | |
HaCaT | HillSlope | 1.13 | 1.16 | 0.954 | 0.81 |
IC50 | 0.435% (=33.93 µg GAE/mL) | 0.879% (=67.68 µg GAE/mL) | 1.15% (=82.8 µg GAE/mL) | 0.616% (=46.82 µg GAE/mL) | |
R (correlation coefficient) | 0.966 | 0.966 | 0.985 | 0.982 | |
A-375 | HillSlope | 1.582 | 1.576 | 1.976 | 1.15 |
IC50 | 0.455% (=35.49 µg GAE/mL) | 0.729% (=56.13 µg GAE/mL) | 0.857% (=61.7 µg GAE/mL) | 0.835% (=63.46 µg GAE/mL) | |
R (correlation coefficient) | 0.979 | 0.985 | 0.996 | 0.99 | |
A-431 | HillSlope | 1.062 | 0.991 | 0.893 | 1.01 |
IC50 | 0.435% (=33.93 µg GAE/mL) | 0.672% (=51.74 µg GAE/mL) | 0.485% (=34.92 µg GAE/mL) | 0.53% (=40.28 µg GAE/mL) | |
R (correlation coefficient) | 0.987 | 0.982 | 0.985 | 0.99 |
Rosa spp. | Cytotoxicity Based on IC50 Values | SI Values |
---|---|---|
R. centifolia L. | A-431 * = HaCaT * > HEP-G2 > A-375 ** | SIHaCaT/A-375 = 0.96 SIHaCaT/A-431 = 1.00 SIHEP-G2/A-375 = 0.99 SIHEP-G2/A-431 = 1.03 |
R. gallica L. | A-431 * > A-375 > HaCaT > HEP-G2 ** | SIHaCaT/A-375 = 1.21 SIHaCaT/A-431 = 1.31 SIHEP-G2/A-375 = 1.39 SIHEP-G2/A-431 = 1.50 |
R. damascena Mill. | A-431 * > A-375 > HEP-G2 > HaCaT ** | SIHaCaT/A-375 = 1.34 SIHaCaT/A-431 = 2.37 SIHEP-G2/A-375 = 1.22 SIHEP-G2/A-431 = 2.16 |
R. alba L. | A-431 * > HaCaT > HEP-G2 > A-375 ** | SIHaCaT/A-375 = 0.74 SIHaCaT/A-431 = 1.16 SIHEP-G2/A-375 = 0.74 SIHEP-G2/A-431 = 1.17 |
Redox and Chelating Activity | WW from R. centifolia L. | WW from R. gallica L. | WW from R. damascene Mill. | WW from R. alba L. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Method | Model Parameters | ||||
TEACCUPRAC | HillSlope | 1.916 | 1.16 | 1.295 | 1.055 |
EC50 | 0.409 * | 0.714 * | 0.699 * | 0.538 * | |
R (correlation coefficient) | 0.994 | 0.995 | 0.9998 | 0.998 | |
FRAP | HillSlope | 0.538 | 0.538 | 0.638 | 0.66 |
EC50 | 0.0095 * | 0.009 * | 0.022 * | 0.019 * | |
R (correlation coefficient) | 0.998 | 0.995 | 0.999 | 0.998 | |
Fe (II) chelation activity | HillSlope | 0.072 | 0.715 | 0.560 | 0.715 |
EC50 | 29.87 * | 18.99 * | 29.88 * | 18.99 * | |
R (correlation coefficient) | 0.920 | 0.968 | 0.928 | 0.968 |
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Georgieva, A.; Ilieva, Y.; Kokanova-Nedialkova, Z.; Zaharieva, M.M.; Nedialkov, P.; Dobreva, A.; Kroumov, A.; Najdenski, H.; Mileva, M. Redox-Modulating Capacity and Antineoplastic Activity of Wastewater Obtained from the Distillation of the Essential Oils of Four Bulgarian Oil-Bearing Roses. Antioxidants 2021, 10, 1615. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10101615
Georgieva A, Ilieva Y, Kokanova-Nedialkova Z, Zaharieva MM, Nedialkov P, Dobreva A, Kroumov A, Najdenski H, Mileva M. Redox-Modulating Capacity and Antineoplastic Activity of Wastewater Obtained from the Distillation of the Essential Oils of Four Bulgarian Oil-Bearing Roses. Antioxidants. 2021; 10(10):1615. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10101615
Chicago/Turabian StyleGeorgieva, Almira, Yana Ilieva, Zlatina Kokanova-Nedialkova, Maya Margaritova Zaharieva, Paraskev Nedialkov, Ana Dobreva, Alexander Kroumov, Hristo Najdenski, and Milka Mileva. 2021. "Redox-Modulating Capacity and Antineoplastic Activity of Wastewater Obtained from the Distillation of the Essential Oils of Four Bulgarian Oil-Bearing Roses" Antioxidants 10, no. 10: 1615. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10101615