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Review

Audio-Visual Entrainment Neuromodulation: A Review of Technical and Functional Aspects †

by
Masoud Rahmani
1,*,
Leonor Josefina Romero Lauro
2 and
Alberto Pisoni
2
1
School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milan, Italy
2
Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milan, Italy
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
The research in this manuscript is part of Rahmani’s Ph.D. dissertation.
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(10), 1070; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15101070
Submission received: 14 July 2025 / Revised: 16 September 2025 / Accepted: 24 September 2025 / Published: 30 September 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Neuropsychology)

Abstract

Audiovisual Entrainment (AVE) is a non-invasive, non-pharmacological neuromodulation approach that aims to align brain activity with externally delivered auditory and visual rhythms. This review surveys AVE’s historical development, technical parameters (e.g., frequency, phase, waveform, color, intensity, presentation mode), components and delivery methods, reported clinical applications, and safety considerations. Given the heterogeneity of AVE protocols and terminology, we conducted a structured narrative review (PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar; earliest records to July 2025), including human and animal studies that met an operational definition of regulated AVE and consistent administration of specified auditory and visual frequencies, with critical methodological details reported. We highlight AVE’s accessibility and versatility, outline a stepwise parameter reporting framework to support standardization, and discuss putative mechanisms via sensory and oscillatory pathways. However, current findings are heterogeneous and include null or limited effects. Mechanistic understanding and parameter optimization remain insufficiently developed, and premature claims of efficacy are not warranted. Rigorous, standardized, and adequately controlled studies are needed before AVE can be considered a reliable therapeutic tool.
Keywords: audio-visual entrainment; neuromodulation; entrainment audio-visual entrainment; neuromodulation; entrainment

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Rahmani, M.; Romero Lauro, L.J.; Pisoni, A. Audio-Visual Entrainment Neuromodulation: A Review of Technical and Functional Aspects. Brain Sci. 2025, 15, 1070. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15101070

AMA Style

Rahmani M, Romero Lauro LJ, Pisoni A. Audio-Visual Entrainment Neuromodulation: A Review of Technical and Functional Aspects. Brain Sciences. 2025; 15(10):1070. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15101070

Chicago/Turabian Style

Rahmani, Masoud, Leonor Josefina Romero Lauro, and Alberto Pisoni. 2025. "Audio-Visual Entrainment Neuromodulation: A Review of Technical and Functional Aspects" Brain Sciences 15, no. 10: 1070. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15101070

APA Style

Rahmani, M., Romero Lauro, L. J., & Pisoni, A. (2025). Audio-Visual Entrainment Neuromodulation: A Review of Technical and Functional Aspects. Brain Sciences, 15(10), 1070. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15101070

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