A Family Systems Perspective on Attachment Security and Dependency to Mother and Father in Preschool: Differential and Reciprocal Effects on Children’s Emotional and Behavioral Problems
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Attachment and Psychopathology
1.1.1. Theoretical Assumptions
1.1.2. Empirical Evidence
Effects of Attachment to Mother and Father on Child Psychopathology
Cumulative Effects of Attachment to Mother and Father on Child Psychopathology
1.1.3. Family Systems Perspective on Attachment and Psychopathology
1.1.4. Rater Effects on Child Psychopathology
1.2. Current Study
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Measures
Attachment Security and Dependency
2.3. Parental Report on Child Emotional and Behavioral Problems
2.4. Observation of Child Emotional and Behavioral Problems
2.5. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Preliminary Analysis
3.2. Main Analysis
4. Discussion
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Brown, G.L.; Aytuglu, H.A. Father-Child Attachment Relationships. In Handbook of Fathers and Child Development; Fitzgerald, H.E., Klitzing, K.V., Cabrera, N.J., Mendonça, J.S.D., Skjøthaug, T., Eds.; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2020; pp. 273–290. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Feldman, R.; Braun, K.; Champagne, F.A. The neural mechanisms and consequences of paternal caregiving. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2019, 20, 205–224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bernier, A.; Miljkovitch, R.; Tarabulsy, G.M.; Sirois, M.S.; Bailey, H.N. Reconsidering the links between sibship size, maternal sensitivity, and child attachment: A multidimensional interactive approach. J. Fam. Psychol. 2018, 32, 396–405. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rodrigues, M.; Sokolovic, N.; Madigan, S.; Luo, Y.; Silva, V.; Misra, S.; Jenkins, J. Paternal sensitivity and children’s cognitive and socioemotional outcomes: A meta-analytic review. Child Dev. 2021, 92, 554–577. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cowan, P.A.; Cowan, C.P. Introduction: Bringing dads back into the family. Attach. Hum. Dev. 2019, 21, 419–425. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Fitzgerald, H.E.; Klitzing, K.V.; Cabrera, N.J.; Mendonça, J.S.D.; Skjøthaug, T. Fathers and Very Young Children: A Developmental Systems Perspective. In Handbook of Fathers and Child Development; Fitzgerald, H.E., Klitzing, K.V., Cabrera, N.J., Mendonça, J.S.D., Skjøthaug, T., Eds.; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2020; pp. 5–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lux, U.; Walper, S. A systemic perspective on children’s emotional insecurity in relation to father: Links to parenting, interparental conflict and children’s social well-being. Attach. Hum. Dev. 2019, 21, 467–484. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bowlby, J. Attachment and Loss: Loss, Sadness and Depression; The Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis: London, UK, 1980; Volume 3, pp. 1–462. [Google Scholar]
- Sroufe, L.A. The Place of Attachment in Development. In Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications, 3rd ed.; Cassidy, J., Shaver, P.R., Eds.; Guilford: New York, NY, USA, 2016; pp. 997–1011. [Google Scholar]
- Grossmann, K.E.; Grossmann, K.; Kindler, H.; Zimmermann, P. A Wider View of Attachment and Exploration: The Influence of Mothers and Fathers on the Development of Psychological Security from Infancy to Young Adulthood. In Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications; Cassidy, J., Shaver, P.R., Eds.; Guilford: New York, NY, USA, 2008; pp. 857–879. [Google Scholar]
- Kobak, R.R.; Cole, H.E.; Ferenz-Gillies, R.; Fleming, W.S.; Gamble, W. Attachment and emotion regulation during mother-teen problem solving: A control theory analysis. Child Dev. 1993, 64, 231–245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Allen, J.P.; Porter, M.; McFarland, C.; McElhaney, K.B.; Marsh, P. The relation of attachment security to adolescents’ paternal and peer relationships, depression, and externalizing behavior. Child Dev. 2007, 78, 1222–1239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Fearon, R.P.; Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J.; Van IJzendoorn, M.H.; Lapsley, A.M.; Roisman, G.I. The significance of insecure attachment and disorganization in the development of children’s externalizing behavior: A meta-analytic study. Child Dev. 2010, 81, 435–456. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zimmermann, P. Bindung, internale Arbeitsmodelle und Emotionsregulation: Die Rolle von Bindungserfahrungen im Risiko-Schutz-Modell. (Attachment, internal working models and emotion regulation: The role of attachment experiences in risk-protection models). Frühförderung Interdiszip. 2000, 19, 119–129. [Google Scholar]
- Iwanski, A.; Lichtenstein, L.; Mühling, L.E.; Zimmermann, P. Effects of father and mother attachment on depressive symptoms in middle childhood and adolescence: The mediating role of emotion regulation. Brain Sci. 2021, 11, 1153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Toth, S.L.; Manly, J.T. Developmental consequences of child abuse and neglect: Implications for intervention. Child Dev. Perspect. 2019, 13, 59–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- DeKlyen, M.; Greenberg, M.T. Attachment and Psychopathology in Childhood. In Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications; Cassidy, J., Shaver, P.R., Eds.; Guilford: New York, NY, USA, 2008; pp. 637–665. [Google Scholar]
- Keller, T.E.; Spieker, S.J.; Gilchrist, L. Patterns of risk and trajectories of preschool problem behaviors: A person-oriented analysis of attachment in context. Dev. Psychopathol. 2005, 17, 349–384. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Duchesne, S.; Ratelle, C.F. Attachment security to mothers and fathers and the developmental trajectories of depressive symptoms in adolescence: Which parent for which trajectory? J. Youth Adolesc. 2014, 43, 641–654. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sund, A.M.; Wichstrøm, L. Insecure attachment as a risk factor for future depressive symptoms in early adolescence. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 2002, 41, 1478–1485. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kerns, K.A.; Brumariu, L.E. Is insecure parent–child attachment a risk factor for the development of anxiety in childhood or adolescence? Child Dev. Perspect. 2014, 8, 12–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Belsky, J.; Fearon, R.M.P. Infant–mother attachment security, contextual risk, and early development: A moderational analysis. Dev. Psychopathol. 2002, 14, 293–310. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Cassidy, J. Emotion regulation: Influences of attachment relationships. Monogr. Soc. Res. Child Dev. 1994, 59, 228–249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zimmermann, P.; Iwanski, A. Attachment in middle childhood: Associations with information processing. New Dir. Child Adolesc. Dev. 2015, 148, 47–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kobak, R.; Bosmans, G. Attachment and psychopathology: A dynamic model of the insecure cycle. Curr. Opin. Psychol. 2018, 25, 76–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zimmermann, P. Structure and functions of internal working models of attachment and their role for emotion regulation. Attach. Hum. Dev. 1999, 1, 291–306. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zimmermann, P.; Maier, M.A.; Winter, M.; Grossmann, K.E. Attachment and adolescents’ emotion regulation during a joint problem-solving task with a friend. Int. J. Behav. Dev. 2001, 25, 331–343. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bernier, A.; Beauchamp, M.H.; Carlson, S.M.; Lalonde, G. A secure base from which to regulate: Attachment security in toddlerhood as a predictor of executive functioning at school entry. Dev. Psychol. 2015, 51, 1177–1189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Brumariu, L.E.; Kerns, K.A.; Seibert, A. Mother–child attachment, emotion regulation, and anxiety symptoms in middle childhood. Pers. Relatsh. 2012, 19, 569–585. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gander, M.; Buchheim, A. Attachment classification, psychophysiology and frontal EEG asymmetry across the lifespan: A review. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 2015, 9, 79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Ainsworth, M.D.S.; Blehar, M.C.; Waters, E.; Wall, S.N. Patterns of Attachment: A Psychological Study of the Strange Situation, 1st ed.; Psychology Press: New York, NY, USA, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Madigan, S.; Brumariu, L.E.; Villani, V.; Atkinson, L.; Lyons-Ruth, K. Representational and questionnaire measures of attachment: A meta-analysis of relations to child internalizing and externalizing problems. Psychol. Bull. 2016, 142, 367–399. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Groh, A.M.; Roisman, G.I.; Van IJzendoorn, M.H.; Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J.; Fearon, R.P. The significance of insecure and disorganized attachment for children’s internalizing symptoms: A meta-analytic study. Child Dev. 2012, 83, 591–610. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Spruit, A.; Goos, L.; Weenink, N.; Rodenburg, R.; Niemeyer, H.; Stams, G.J.; Colonnesi, C. The relation between attachment and depression in children and adolescents: A multilevel meta-analysis. Clin. Child Fam. Psychol. Rev. 2020, 23, 54–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Colonnesi, C.; Draijer, E.M.; Stams, G.J.; Van der Bruggen, C.O.; Bögels, S.M.; Noom, M.J. The Relation Between Insecure Attachment and Child Anxiety: A Meta-Analytic Review. J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol. 2011, 40, 630–645. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vaughn, B.E.; Strayer, F.F.; Jacques, M.; Trudel, M.; Seifer, R. Maternal Descriptions of 2 and 3-year-old Children: A Comparison of Attachment Q-sorts in Two Socio-Cultural Communities. Int. J. Behav. Dev. 1991, 14, 249–271. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Deneault, A.A.; Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J.; Groh, A.M.; Fearon, P.R.; Madigan, S. Child-father attachment in early childhood and behavior problems: A meta-analysis. New Dir. Child Adolesc. Dev. 2021, 180, 43–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sroufe, L.A. Principles of development: The case of dependency. Attach. Hum. Dev. 2021, 23, 581–586. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lafrenière, P.J.; Provost, M.A.; Dubeau, D. From an insecure base: Parent-child relations and internalizing behavior in the pre-school. Early Dev. Parent. 1992, 1, 137–148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bernier, A.; Bélanger, M.È.; Tarabulsy, G.M.; Simard, V.; Carrier, J. My mother is sensitive, but I am too tired to know: Infant sleep as a moderator of prospective relations between maternal sensitivity and infant outcomes. Infant Behav. Dev. 2014, 37, 682–694. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Scher, A.; Asher, R. Is attachment security related to sleep–wake regulation?: Mothers’ reports and objective sleep recordings. Infant Behav. Dev. 2004, 27, 288–302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bernier, A.; Bélanger, M.-È.; Tétreault, É. The Hand that Rocks the Cradle: The Family and Parenting Context of Children’s Sleep. In APA Handbook of Contemporary Family Psychology: Applications and Broad Impact of Family Psychology; Fiese, B.H., Celano, K., Deater-Deckard, K., Jouriles, E.N., Whisman, M.A., Eds.; American Psychological Association: Washington, DC, USA, 2019; Volume 2, pp. 137–151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Deneault, A.A.; Bureau, J.F.; Yurkowski, K. Do child–father and child–mother preschool insecure attachment types predict the development of externalizing behaviors in boys and girls during middle childhood? Dev. Psychol. 2022, 58, 1360–1370. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dagan, O.; Groh, A.M.; Madigan, S.; Bernard, K. A Lifespan Development Theory of Insecure Attachment and Internalizing Symptoms: Integrating Meta-Analytic Evidence via a Testable Evolutionary Mis/Match Hypothesis. Brain Sci. 2021, 11, 1226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dagan, O.; Sagi-Schwartz, A. Early attachment networks to multiple caregivers: History, assessment models, and future research recommendations. New Dir. Child Adolesc. Dev. 2021, 180, 9–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grossmann, K.E.; Grossmann, K.; Zimmermann, P. A Wider View of Attachment and Exploration: Stability and Change during the Years of Immaturity. In Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications; Cassidy, J., Shaver, P.R., Eds.; Guilford Press: New York, NY, USA, 1999; pp. 760–786. [Google Scholar]
- Bretherton, I. Pouring New Wine into Old Bottles: The Social Self as Internal Working Model. In Minnesota Symposia in Child Psychology: Self Processes in Development; Gunnar, M.R., Sroufe, L.A., Eds.; Erlbaum: Hillsdale, MI, USA, 1991; pp. 1–41. [Google Scholar]
- Verschueren, K.; Marcoen, A. Representation of self and socioemotional competence in kindergartners: Differential and combined effects of attachment to mother and to father. Child Dev. 1999, 70, 183–201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kochanska, G.; Kim, S. Early attachment organization with both parents and future behavior problems: From infancy to middle childhood. Child Dev. 2013, 84, 283–296. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boldt, L.J.; Kochanska, G.; Yoon, J.E.; Nordling, J.K. Children’s Attachment to Both Parents from Toddler Age to Middle Childhood: Links to Adaptive and Maladaptive Outcomes. Attach. Hum. Dev. 2014, 16, 211–229. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dagan, O.; Schuengel, C.; Verhage, M.L.; Van IJzendoorn, M.H.; Sagi-Schwartz, A.; Madigan, S.; Duschinsky, R.; Roisman, G.I.; Bernard, K.; Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.; et al. Configurations of mother-child and father-child attachment as predictors of internalizing and externalizing behavioral problems: An individual participant data (IPD) meta-analysis. New Dir. Child Adolesc. Dev. 2021, 180, 67–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Suess, G.J.; Grossmann, K.E.; Sroufe, L.A. Effects of infant attachment to mother and father on quality of adaptation in preschool: From dyadic to individual organisation of self. Int. J. Behav. Dev. 1992, 15, 43–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Minuchin, S. Families and Family Therapy; Routledge: London, UK, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Davies, P.T.; Cummings, E.M.; Winter, M.A. Pathways between profiles of family functioning, child security in the interparental subsystem, and child psychological problems. Dev. Psychopathol. 2004, 16, 525–550. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Bornstein, M.H.; Sawyer, J. Family Systems. In Blackwell Handbook of Early Childhood Development; McCartney, K., Phillips, D., Eds.; Blackwell Publishing: Malden, MA, USA, 2006; pp. 381–398. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cox, M.J.; Paley, B. Understanding families as systems. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 2003, 12, 193–196. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stadelmann, C.; Senn, M.; Forster, F.; Rauch-Anderegg, V.; Nussbeck, F.W.; Johnson, M.D.; Iwanski, A.; Zimmermann, P.; Bodenmann, G. Dyadic coping trajectories across the transition to parenthood: Associations with child mental health problems. J. Fam. Psychol. 2022. online first. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zemp, M.; Johnson, M.D.; Bodenmann, G. Within-family processes: Interparental and coparenting conflict and child adjustment. J. Fam. Psychol. 2018, 32, 299–309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McCauley, D.M.; Sloan, C.J.; Xia, M.; Fosco, G.M. Same family, divergent realities: How triangulation preserves parents’ illusory harmony while adolescents navigate interparental conflicts. J. Fam. Psychol. 2021, 35, 128–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Howes, P.; Markman, H.J. Marital quality and child functioning: A longitudinal investigation. Child Dev. 1989, 60, 1044–1051. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gao, M.; Du, H.; Davies, P.T.; Cummings, E.M. Marital Conflict Behaviors and Parenting: Dyadic Links Over Time. Fam. Relat. 2018, 68, 135–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Rothbaum, F.; Rosen, K.S.; Pott, M.; Beatty, M. Early parent-child relationships and later problem behavior: A longitudinal study. Merrill-Palmer Q. 1995, 41, 133–151. [Google Scholar]
- Martel, M.M.; Markon, K.; Smith, G.T. Research Review: Multi-informant integration in child and adolescent psychopathology diagnosis. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 2017, 58, 116–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- De Los Reyes, A.; Augenstein, T.M.; Wang, M.; Thomas, S.A.; Drabick, D.A.; Burgers, D.E.; Rabinowitz, J. The validity of the multi-informant approach to assessing child and adolescent mental health. Psychol. Bull. 2015, 141, 858–900. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kerr, D.C.R.; Lunkenheimer, E.S.; Olson, S.L. Assessment of child problem behaviors by multiple informants: A longitudinal study from preschool to school entry. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 2007, 48, 967–975. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mian, N.D.; Carter, A.S.; Pine, D.S.; Wakschlag, L.S.; Briggs-Gowan, M.J. Development of a novel observational measure for anxiety in young children: The Anxiety Dimensional Observation Scale. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 2015, 56, 1017–1025. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Wakschlag, L.S.; Briggs-Gowan, M.J.; Hill, C.; Danis, B.; Leventhal, B.L.; Keenan, K.; Egger, H.L.; Cicchetti, D.; Maskowitz, K.; Burns, J.; et al. Disruptive Behavior Diagnostic Observation Schedule. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 2008, 47, 632–641. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Los Reyes, A.; Henry, D.B.; Tolan, P.H.; Wakschlag, L.S. Linking informant discrepancies to observed variations in young children’s disruptive behavior. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 2009, 37, 637–652. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Petitclerc, A.; Briggs-Gowan, M.J.; Estabrook, R.; Burns, J.L.; Anderson, E.L.; McCarthy, K.J.; Wakschlag, L.S. Contextual variation in young children’s observed disruptive behavior on the DB-DOS: Implications for early identification. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 2015, 56, 1008–1016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Joseph, H.M.; Kennedy, T.M.; Gnagy, E.M.; Perlman, S.B.; Pelham, W.E.; Molina, B.S. Fathers with childhood ADHD, parenting, and their young children’s behavior: Offspring of the Pittsburgh ADHD Longitudinal Study (PALS). Child Psychiatry Hum. Dev. 2019, 50, 35–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Winek, J.L. Systemic Family Therapy: From Theory to Practice; SAGE: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Bodenmann, G.; Stadelmann, C.; Zimmermann, P.; Iwanski, A.; Senn, M.; Milek, A.; Rauch-Anderegg, V.; Meier, F. Parental relationship and child development: A study protocol for a randomized controlled trial for strengthening couples and children from pregnancy until four years after birth. Res. Sq. 2019, 1–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Waters, E. Appendix A: The attachment Q-set (version 3.0). Monogr. Soc. Res. Child Dev. 1995, 60, 234–246. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gleason, M.M.; Zeanah, C.H.; Dickstein, S. Recognizing young children in need of mental health assessment: Development and preliminary validity of the early childhood screening assessment. Infant Ment. Health J. 2010, 31, 335–357. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zimmermann, P.; (University of Wuppertal, Wuppertal, Germany). Deutsche Version des Early Childhood Screening Assessment: Screening Frühe Kindheit (SFK). 2013; Unpublished Test Manual. [Google Scholar]
- Zimmermann, P.; Gleason, M.M.; Hellwig, S.; Podewski, F.; Iwanski, A. Psychometric properties of the German version of the Early Childhood Screening Assessment. J. Child Fam. Stud. 2022, 31, 484–495. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zimmermann, P.; Podewski, F.; (University of Wuppertal, Wuppertal, Germany). Psychopathological Symptoms Observation (PSO). 2018; Unpublished Test Manual. [Google Scholar]
- Zimmermann, P.; Podewski, F. Parental emotion regulation: Risk or protective factor for problem behavior in toddlerhood and preschool? Psychol. Erzieh. Unterr. 2023, 70, 47–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kochanska, G.; Coy, K.C.; Tjebkes, T.L.; Husarek, S.J. Individual differences in emotionality in infancy. Child Dev. 1998, 69, 375–390. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Goldsmith, H.H.; Rothbart, M.K. Prelocomotor and Locomotor Laboratory Temperament Assessment Battery, Lab-TAB; Version 3.0; Technical Manual; University of Wisconsin: Madison, WI, USA, 1999. [Google Scholar]
- Zimmermann, P.; Vierhaus, M.; Eickhorst, A.; Sann, A.; Egger, C.; Förthner, J.; Gerlach, J.; Iwanski, A.; Liel, C.; Podewski, F.; et al. Aufwachsen unter familiärer Belastung in Deutschland. Bundesgesundheitsblatt-Gesundheitsforschung-Gesundheitsschutz 2016, 59, 1262–1270. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grossmann, K.E.; Grossmann, K.; Huber, F.; Wartner, U. German children’s behavior towards their mothers at 12 months and their fathers at 18 months in Ainsworth’s Strange Situation. Int. J. Behav. Dev. 1981, 4, 157–181. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Steele, H.; Steele, M.; Fonagy, P. Associations among attachment classifications of mothers, fathers, and their infants. Child Dev. 1996, 67, 541–555. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kochanska, G.; Kim, S. Difficult temperament moderates links between maternal responsiveness and children’s compliance and behavior problems in low-income families. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 2013, 54, 323–332. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grossmann, K.; Grossmann, K.E.; Fremmer-Bombik, E.; Kindler, H.; Scheuerer-Englisch, H.; Zimmermann, A.P. The uniqueness of the child–father attachment relationship: Fathers’ sensitive and challenging play as a pivotal variable in a 16-year longitudinal study. Soc. Dev. 2002, 11, 301–337. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zimmermann, P.; Mühling, L.E.; Lichtenstein, L.; Iwanski, A. Still Mother after All These Years: Infants Still Prefer Mothers over Fathers (If They Have the Choice). Soc. Sci. 2022, 11, 51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Waters, E.; Deane, K.E. Defining and assessing individual differences in attachment relationships: Q-methodology and the organization of behavior in infancy and early childhood. Monogr. Soc. Res. Child Dev. 1985, 50, 41–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J.; van IJzendoorn, M.H.; Bokhorst, C.L.; Schuengel, C. The Importance of Shared Environment in Infant-Father Attachment: A Behavioral Genetic Study of the Attachment Q-Sort. J. Fam. Psychol. 2004, 18, 545–549. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sroufe, L.A.; Fox, N.E.; Pancake, V.R. Attachment and dependency in developmental perspective. Child Dev. 1983, 54, 1615–1627. Available online: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1129825 (accessed on 1 January 2020). [CrossRef]
- Matas, L.; Arend, R.A.; Sroufe, L.A. Continuity of adaptation in the second year: The relationship between quality of attachment and later competence. Child Dev. 1978, 49, 547–556. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Veríssimo, M.; Santos, A.J.; Vaughn, B.E.; Torres, N.; Monteiro, L.; Santos, O. Quality of attachment to father and mother and number of reciprocal friends. Early Child Dev. Care 2011, 181, 27–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Iwanski, A.; Mühling, L.; Zimmermann, P. Do ideal fathers differ from ideal mothers? A study on sensitivity, challenging, and sensitive challenging behavior. Psicologia 2022, 36, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grossmann, K.; Grossmann, K.E. Essentials when studying child-father attachment: A fundamental view on safe haven and secure base phenomena. Attach. Hum. Dev. 2020, 22, 9–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Keenan, K.; Wakschlag, L.S. Can a valid diagnosis of disruptive behavior disorder be made in preschool children? Am. J. Psychiatry 2002, 159, 351–358. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nielsen, A.N.; Wakschlag, L.S.; Norton, E.S. Linking irritability and functional brain networks: A transdiagnostic case for expanding consideration of development and environment in RDoC. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2021, 129, 231–244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yarger, H.A.; Lind, T.; Raby, K.L.; Zajac, L.; Wallin, A.; Dozier, M. Intervening with attachment and biobehavioral catch-up to reduce behavior problems among children adopted internationally: Evidence from a randomized controlled trial. Child Maltreatment 2022, 27, 478–489. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bick, J.; Lipschutz, R.; Lind, T.; Zajac, L.; Dozier, M. Associations between early home environment and trajectories of disruptive behavior among preschoolers reared in CPS-referred families. Dev. Child Welf. 2019, 1, 297–311. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zimmermann, P.; Iwanski, A. Attachment disorder behavior in early and middle childhood: Associations with children’s self-concept and observed signs of negative internal working models. Attach. Hum. Dev. 2019, 21, 170–189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jin, M.K.; Jacobvitz, D.; Hazen, N.; Jung, S.H. Maternal sensitivity and infant attachment security in Korea: Cross-cultural validation of the Strange Situation. Attach. Hum. Dev. 2012, 14, 33–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Chen, X.; Hastings, P.D.; Rubin, K.H.; Chen, H.; Cen, G.; Stewart, S.L. Child-rearing attitudes and behavioral inhibition in Chinese and Canadian toddlers: A cross-cultural study. Dev. Psychol. 1998, 34, 677–686. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Archer, M.; Steele, M.; Lan, J.; Jin, X.; Herreros, F.; Steele, H. Attachment between infants and mothers in China: Strange situation procedure findings to date and a new sample. Int. J. Behav. Dev. 2015, 39, 485–491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Umemura, T.; Iwamoto, S.; Tanaka, H. Japanese infants’ attachment insecurity and externalizing/internalizing problems: Using strange situation and attachment Q-sort methods. Infant Ment. Health J. 2022, 43, 910–920. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vereijken, C.J.J.L.; Riksen-Walraven, J.M.; VanLieshout, C.F.M. Mother-infant relationships in Japan: Attachment, dependency, and amae. J. Cross-Cult. Psychol. 1997, 28, 442–462. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, M.; Chen, X.; Rubin, K.H.; Zheng, S.; Cui, L.; Li, D.; Chen, H.; Wang, L. Autonomy- vs. connectedness-oriented parenting behaviours in Chinese and Canadian mothers. Int. J. Behav. Dev. 2005, 29, 489–495. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Weitkamp, K.; Bodenmann, G. Couples coping together: A scoping review of the quantitative and qualitative evidence and conceptual work across three decades. Front. Psychol. 2022, 13, 2967. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Warmuth, K.A.; Cummings, E.M.; Davies, P.T. Constructive and destructive interparental conflict, problematic parenting practices, and children’s symptoms of psychopathology. J. Fam. Psychol. 2020, 34, 301–311. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zemp, M.; Jockers, M.; Mata, J. The role of constructiveness in interparental conflict for mothers’ perception of children’s health. Fam. Relat. 2020, 69, 683–697. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nuttall, A.K.; Valentino, K.; Cummings, E.M.; Davies, P.T. Contextualizing children’s caregiving responses to interparental conflict: Advancing assessment of parentification. J. Fam. Psychol. 2021, 35, 276–287. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Altenburger, L.E.; Schoppe-Sullivan, S.J.; Kamp Dush, C.M. Associations between maternal gatekeeping and fathers’ parenting quality. J. Child Fam. Stud. 2018, 27, 2678–2689. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Murphy, S.E.; Jacobvitz, D.B.; Hazen, N.L. What’s so bad about competitive coparenting? Family-level predictors of children’s externalizing symptoms. J. Child Fam. Stud. 2016, 25, 1684–1690. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zemp, M.; Milek, A.; Cummings, E.M.; Cina, A.; Bodenmann, G. How couple-and parenting-focused programs affect child behavioral problems: A randomized controlled trial. J. Child Fam. Stud. 2016, 25, 798–810. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
M | SD | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Attachment (AQS): | ||||||||
1. Security Mother | 0.61 | 0.18 | ||||||
2. Dependency Mother | −0.01 | 0.20 | 0.28 ** | |||||
3. Security Father | 0.56 | 0.20 | 0.23 * | −0.10 | ||||
4. Dependency Father | −0.06 | 0.19 | −0.01 | 0.46 *** | 0.16 + | |||
Emotional and Behavioral Problems: | ||||||||
5. Mother Report (SFK) | 0.39 | 0.19 | −0.25 ** | 0.16 + | −0.03 | 0.30 *** | ||
6. Father Report (SFK) | 0.43 | 0.19 | −0.16 + | 0.07 | −0.06 | 0.13 | 0.54 *** | |
7. Observation (PSO) | 0.11 | 0.05 | −0.29 ** | 0.17 + | −0.31 *** | 0.14 | 0.29 ** | 0.14 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Iwanski, A.; Lichtenstein, L.; Forster, F.; Stadelmann, C.; Bodenmann, G.; Zimmermann, P. A Family Systems Perspective on Attachment Security and Dependency to Mother and Father in Preschool: Differential and Reciprocal Effects on Children’s Emotional and Behavioral Problems. Brain Sci. 2023, 13, 35. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci13010035
Iwanski A, Lichtenstein L, Forster F, Stadelmann C, Bodenmann G, Zimmermann P. A Family Systems Perspective on Attachment Security and Dependency to Mother and Father in Preschool: Differential and Reciprocal Effects on Children’s Emotional and Behavioral Problems. Brain Sciences. 2023; 13(1):35. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci13010035
Chicago/Turabian StyleIwanski, Alexandra, Lucie Lichtenstein, Fabienne Forster, Céline Stadelmann, Guy Bodenmann, and Peter Zimmermann. 2023. "A Family Systems Perspective on Attachment Security and Dependency to Mother and Father in Preschool: Differential and Reciprocal Effects on Children’s Emotional and Behavioral Problems" Brain Sciences 13, no. 1: 35. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci13010035
APA StyleIwanski, A., Lichtenstein, L., Forster, F., Stadelmann, C., Bodenmann, G., & Zimmermann, P. (2023). A Family Systems Perspective on Attachment Security and Dependency to Mother and Father in Preschool: Differential and Reciprocal Effects on Children’s Emotional and Behavioral Problems. Brain Sciences, 13(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci13010035