Attachment Representations in Children with and without Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. ADHD/ODD/CD
2.2.2. Intelligence
2.2.3. Parental Education Level
2.2.4. Attachment Representations
2.2.5. Parent–Child Relationship: Expressed Emotion
2.2.6. Parents’ Perceived Sense of Competence
2.3. Procedure
2.4. Data-Analytic Approach
3. Results
3.1. Preliminary Analyses
3.2. Primary Analyses: Group Differences
3.3. Secondary Analyses: Within ADHD Group Analyses
4. Discussion
4.1. Strengths and Limitations
4.2. Clinical Implications and Future Directions
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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ADHD (N = 74) | TD (N = 30) | ||
---|---|---|---|
Age | 8.60 (1.62) | 8.03 (1.82) | t(102) = −1.57 n.s. |
Sex (% boys) | 64.86% | 63.33% | χ2(1) = 0.02 n.s. |
IQ | 96.09 (13.26) | 101.31 (10.81) | t(101) = 1.89 n.s. |
Parental education level | 5.26 (1.03) | 6.05 (0.58) | U = 479.0 *** |
Inattention symptoms | 7.05 (1.52) | 1.53 (1.43) | U = 2119.5 *** |
Hyp.–Imp. symptoms | 6.24 (2.16) | 1.27 (1.29) | U = 2123.0 *** |
ODD symptoms | 2.89 (2.14) | 0.73 (1.29) | U = 1798.5 *** |
ADHD (N = 74) | TD (N = 30) | ||
---|---|---|---|
Secure | 2.73 (1.19) | 3.39 (0.75) | t(80.37) = 3.49, p = 0.001 * |
Avoidant | 1.90 (0.87) | 1.91 (0.56) | t(81.90) = 0.26, p = 0.793 |
Ambivalent | 1.46 (0.62) | 1.23 (0.33) | t(92.46) = −2.57, p = 0.012 * |
Disorganized | 1.81 (1.10) | 1.32 (0.67) | t(79.58) = −3.03, p = 0.003 * |
B (95% CI) | SE | β | p | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Secure attachment | ||||
Age | 0.01 (−0.01; 0.03) | 0.01 | 0.09 | 0.52 |
Parental education levels | −0.03 (−0.40; 0.37) | 0.20 | −0.03 | 0.86 |
ODD symptoms | −0.01 (−0.15; 0.15) | 0.07 | −0.02 | 0.90 |
Expressed Emotion | 0.13 (−0.10; 0.37) | 0.11 | 0.15 | 0.29 |
Parenting Sense of Competence | 0.01 (−0.02; 0.04) | 0.02 | 0.10 | 0.43 |
Avoidant attachment | ||||
Age | −0.00 (−0.01; 0.01) | 0.01 | −0.03 | 0.85 |
Parental education levels | 0.10 (−0.08; 0.31) | 0.10 | 0.12 | 0.38 |
ODD symptoms | −0.02 (−0.15; 0.09) | 0.06 | −0.06 | 0.67 |
Expressed Emotion | 0.05 (−0.10; 0.19) | 0.08 | 0.08 | 0.55 |
Parenting Sense of Competence | −0.01 (−0.03; 0.02) | 0.01 | −0.07 | 0.64 |
Ambivalent attachment | ||||
Age | −0.01 (−0.01; 0.00) | 0.00 | −0.15 | 0.15 |
Parental education levels | 0.07 (−0.08; 0.20) | 0.07 | 0.12 | 0.44 |
ODD Symptoms | −0.03 (−0.09; 0.05) | 0.04 | −0.09 | 0.47 |
Expressed Emotion | −0.02 (−0.14; 0.11) | 0.06 | −0.04 | 0.76 |
Parenting Sense of Competence | 0.01 (−0.01; 0.02) | 0.01 | 0.09 | 0.55 |
Disorganized attachment | ||||
Age | −0.01 (−0.02; 0.01) | 0.01 | −0.14 | 0.41 |
Parental education levels | −0.04 (−0.36; 0.20) | 0.15 | −0.04 | 0.78 |
ODD Symptoms | 0.04 (−0.06; 0.16) | 0.06 | 0.08 | 0.49 |
Expressed Emotion | −0.16 (−0.37; 0.07) | 0.11 | −0.22 | 0.18 |
Parenting Sense of Competence | −0.01 (−0.04; 0.02) | 0.02 | −0.09 | 0.55 |
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Dekkers, T.J.; Hornstra, R.; van den Hoofdakker, B.J.; de Jong, S.R.C.; Schaaf, J.V.; Bosmans, G.; van der Oord, S. Attachment Representations in Children with and without Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Brain Sci. 2021, 11, 1516. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11111516
Dekkers TJ, Hornstra R, van den Hoofdakker BJ, de Jong SRC, Schaaf JV, Bosmans G, van der Oord S. Attachment Representations in Children with and without Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Brain Sciences. 2021; 11(11):1516. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11111516
Chicago/Turabian StyleDekkers, Tycho J., Rianne Hornstra, Barbara J. van den Hoofdakker, Suzanne R. C. de Jong, Jessica V. Schaaf, Guy Bosmans, and Saskia van der Oord. 2021. "Attachment Representations in Children with and without Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)" Brain Sciences 11, no. 11: 1516. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11111516
APA StyleDekkers, T. J., Hornstra, R., van den Hoofdakker, B. J., de Jong, S. R. C., Schaaf, J. V., Bosmans, G., & van der Oord, S. (2021). Attachment Representations in Children with and without Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Brain Sciences, 11(11), 1516. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11111516