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Article

Genesis of Basalts of the Raohe Subduction–Accretion Complex in the Wandashan Block, NE China, and Its Inspirations for Evolution of the Paleo-Pacific Ocean

by
Qing Liu
1,
Cui Liu
1,*,
Jixu Liu
1,
Jinfu Deng
1 and
Shipan Tian
2
1
School of Earth Sciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
2
Heilongjiang Geological Science Institute, Harbin 150036, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(15), 8139; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15158139
Submission received: 9 June 2025 / Revised: 6 July 2025 / Accepted: 15 July 2025 / Published: 22 July 2025
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Abstract

The Raohe subduction–accretion complex (RSAC) in the Wandashan Block, NE China, comprises ultramafic rocks, gabbro, mafic volcanic rocks, deep-sea and hemipelagic sediments, and trench–slope turbidites. We investigate the basalts within the RSAC to resolve debates on its origin. Zircon U-Pb dating of pillow basalt from Dadingzi Mountain yields a concordant age of 117.5 ± 2.1 Ma (MSWD = 3.6). Integrating previous studies, we identify three distinct basalt phases. The Late Triassic basalt (210 Ma–230 Ma) is characterized as komatites–melilitite, exhibiting features of island arc basalt, as well as some characteristics of E-MORB. It also contains high-magnesium lava, suggesting that it may be a product of a juvenile arc. The Middle Jurassic basalt (around 159 Ma–172 Ma) consists of a combination of basalt and magnesium andesite, displaying features of oceanic island basalt and mid-ocean ridge basalt. Considering the contemporaneous sedimentary rocks as hemipelagic continental slope deposits, it is inferred that these basalts were formed in an arc environment associated with oceanic subduction, likely as a result of subduction of the young oceanic crust. The Early Cretaceous basalt (around 117 Ma) occurs in pillow structures, exhibiting some characteristics of oceanic island basalt but also showing transitional features towards a continental arc. Considering the regional distribution of the rocks, it is inferred that this basalt likely formed in a back-arc basin. Integrating the formation ages, nature, and tectonic attributes of the various structural units within the RSAC, as well as previous research, it is inferred that subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Ocean had already begun during the Late Triassic and continued into the Early Cretaceous without cessation.

1. Introduction

The Northeast region of China is situated between the Siberian Craton, the North China Craton, and the Pacific Plate. Since the Paleozoic Era, it has successively been influenced by the subduction effects of the Paleo-Asian Ocean and the Paleo-Pacific Ocean [1,2,3,4]. Additionally, it has experienced the overprinting modification from the Mongol-Okhotsk orogeny in the north, resulting in complex microcontinental evolution and a convoluted history of amalgamation [5,6]. The Wandashan Block, located at the easternmost part of the Northeast region, is a major tectonic unit within the Sikhote-Alin Terrane. It has been referred to as a fold belt, geosyncline, plate subduction zone, terrane, and back-arc marginal sea, among other terms, and its nature has long been a subject of debate [6,7,8,9,10].
Throughout geological history, the area of the oceans has been continuously shrinking, while the area of continents has been increasing. This process is primarily achieved through ocean–continent transformation (i.e., the subduction and consumption of oceanic plates, leading to the formation of arc-continent assemblages). Due to long-term subduction and consumption, the records of ancient oceans preserved in geological history are very limited, and even fewer can be recognized [11]. As a result, our understanding of ancient oceanic plates is very limited. The RSAC is located in the middle part of the Wandashan Block and comprises deep-sea turbidites, basalts, and gabbros. The basalts and gabbros occur as fault blocks or remnants enclosed within sedimentary and metamorphic rocks of different ages. Some researchers consider it to be an ophiolite [12,13,14,15], while others regard it as oceanic island basalts [16], and some consider it to be an accretionary complex [17]. It is believed to have formed during the subduction of the ancient Pacific Plate and thus is very likely to preserve records that reveal the nature of the ancient Pacific Plate and the ocean–continent transformation process [18,19,20,21]. This study focuses on the basalts in the Raohe subduction–accretion complex (RSAC), aiming to reveal their igneous associations and characteristics, explore their origins, and thereby investigate the nature of the RSAC, restore the nature of the ancient oceanic plate, and elucidate the ocean–continent transformation process. This research provides key insights into the plate tectonics of the region.

2. Regional Geological Background

The Wandashan Block is located at the eastern end of the Xing-Meng Orogenic Belt. To the east and north, it is adjacent to the Sikhote-Alin accretionary complex in Russia’s Far East, separated by the Ussuri River and the Heilongjiang River, respectively, forming a superterrane. To the west, it is bordered by the Jiamusi Block along the Dahuazhen Fault, and to the south, it is adjacent to the Xingkai Block along the Dunmi Fault [22,23]. Overall, it exhibits a slightly westward-dipping arcuate distribution trending north–south. The Wandashan Block has successively experienced the subduction and closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean, the subduction of the Mongol-Okhotsk Ocean, and the subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Ocean [24,25,26]. The RSAC is situated in the central part of the Wandashan Block, near Raohe County, and trends nearly north–south. It is the subject of this study (Figure 1).
The Wandashan Block has well-developed Mesozoic and Cenozoic strata, with the Triassic strata being the most predominant. The magmatic rocks in the block can generally be divided into the following: the Late Paleozoic mafic-ultramafic rocks in the Yuejinshan-Dongfanghong Area; the Early Mesozoic mafic-ultramafic rocks in the Raohe area, which are the main components of the RSAC, including gabbro, basalt, serpentinite, etc., among which the basalts are the key subjects of this study; and the widely exposed Late Mesozoic acidic intrusive rocks and acidic volcanic rocks, representative of pluton, including the Hamatong pluton and Taipingcun pluton (with crystallization ages between 114 and 116 Ma). Acidic volcanic rocks are mainly rhyolite and are found in the Early Cretaceous strata [14,23].
The basement of the Wandashan Block mainly consists of Triassic-to-Jurassic oceanic crust ophiolites and deep-sea siliceous rocks, interspersed with Paleozoic continental margin landslide bodies. To the south, it is bordered by the northern branch of the Tan-Lu fault—the Dunhua-Mishan Fault, adjacent to the Xingkai Block—and to the west, it is bordered by the Baoqing-Dahezhen fault, adjacent to the Jiamusi Block. Additionally, there are developed the Fujin-Xiaojiahe basement faults extending from the Jiamusi Block to the base of the Wandashan Block, Early Mesozoic northwest-trending irregular faults, and Mesozoic northeast-trending irregular faults [23,28].

3. Sampling Location and Petrographic Features

3.1. Sampling Location of This Study

As previously described, the RSAC is located near Raohe County and consists of a series of rock blocks and a matrix. According to previous studies, basalts are distributed in the central part of the complex and generally exhibit a ‘belt-like’ distribution [23]. Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous granitic intrusive rocks are mainly found around the mafic and ultramafic rocks. Deep-sea and hemipelagic sediments occur as isolated blocks separated by a trench–slope turbidite matrix. Limestone blocks are exposed in the Shichang-Hongqiling area and are embedded within a weakly sheared trench–slope turbidite matrix. The trench–slope turbidite matrix is distributed in areas such as Sibangshan, Yongfuqiao, Daodaoshan, and Xiangyangshan in Raohe County. The rock blocks and matrix are primarily in fault contact. The Late Triassic and Middle Jurassic basalts are more dispersed and may be distributed throughout the ‘belt-like’ mafic rocks. In this study, field geological surveys were conducted on the basalts of the RSAC, with a particular focus on the pillow basalts located to the west of Dadai Village and along the roadside towards Datingzishan (Figure 2a–c).
The pillow basalt (DDC2019729-1) in this study was collected from the roadside near Dadai Village, heading west towards Dadingzi Mountain (Figure 1), with an outcrop height of approximately 60 m and a width of about 1 km (Figure 2a,b).

3.2. Petrographic Features

The pillow basalt (DDC2019729-1): the rock is very fresh, gray–green in color, with a porphyritic texture and pillow structure (20–50 cm). The phenocrysts are predominantly clinopyroxene, occurring as short to elongated prismatic crystals, approximately 0.5 mm in size, with some cross-sections showing zoning, making up about 10% of the rock. There are also minor orthopyroxene phenocrysts, present at about 1–5%, similar in size to the clinopyroxene. The groundmass exhibits an intergranular to intersertal texture, with microcrysts of pyroxene and plagioclase, which together account for more than 60% of the rock, with plagioclase microcrysts being slightly more abundant. Vesicles and amygdules can also be observed under the microscope, making up about 5% of the rock (Figure 2c–e).

4. Analytical Methods

4.1. Zircon U-Pb Dating

The process of individual mineral separation involves crushing the rock to a powder finer than 0.3 mm and using methods such as heavy liquid separation, magnetic separation, and manual observation under a microscope to select individual mineral grains. The target preparation of zircon and the acquisition of cathodoluminescence images, reflected light images, and transmitted light images were all completed at the Analytical Testing Center of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region Geological Survey Institute. The LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb isotopic dating was also performed at the same center. A 193 nm laser ablation system and Neptune Plus multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (MC-ICP-MS) were utilized, with a laser ablation spot size of 32 μm, an energy density of 10 J/cm2, and a frequency of 6 Hz. The standard zircons GJ-1 and 91500 were used for calibration. Data processing was carried out using the ICPMSDataCal program developed by Professor Liu Yongsheng from China University of Geosciences and the Isoplot program by Kenneth R. Ludwig for analysis and plotting, with common lead correction using 208Pb. The Pb, U, and Th contents of the zircon samples were calculated using the external standard NIST 610. In this study, chronological analysis was conducted on the pillow basalt (DDC2019729-1), and the test results are presented in Table 1.

4.2. Major and Trace Element Analyses

The preliminary processing and separation of individual minerals of the self-collected samples were all completed by the Shangyi Rock and Ore Testing Company in Langfang City, Hebei Province. Initially, the field-collected samples were ground to make probe sections, and thin sections were observed under a microscope based on field characteristics to determine the lithological features. Thereafter, fresh samples were selected for grinding and ground into a powder finer than 200 mesh.
The element analysis of the samples was completed by the Hebei Regional Geological Survey Co., Ltd. Major element analysis, except for FeO, was conducted using X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF), while the FeO content was determined using wet chemical analysis. The Fe2O3 content was then calculated based on the total iron (TFeO) content measured via XRF. AGV-2 (andesite) and GSR-1 (granite) were employed as reference materials, with analytical precision better than 2%. Trace element analysis was conducted through inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) using reference standards AGV-2 and GSR-1. The analytical precision was maintained within 5–10% error margins. Methodological details follow [33], with complete results in Table 2 and Table 3.

5. Results

5.1. Zircon U-Pb Ages

Seven zircons were selected from the Early Cretaceous pillow basalt sample (DDC2019729-1). Most zircons are fine grains with usually a 70~80 μm length (a few grains are larger) and are relatively large, and some are euhedral and others are fragmented, possibly made by the separation process (Figure 3b), resulting in irregularities. The shapes of most zicons are short columnar with a length-to-width ratio ranging from 1:1 to 2:1. The zircons appear colorless under transmitted light and reflected light. And they show variable brightness, with typically magmatic oscillatory zoning under cathodoluminescence images.
The test results are presented in Table 1. These zircons have thorium (Th) contents ranging from 44 to 363 ppm, uranium (U) contents ranging from 345 to 880 ppm, and Th/U ratios between 0.13 and 0.41. Although the Th/U ratios of most zircons are less than 0.4, the majority are greater than 0.2, and all are above 0.1, thus ruling out the possibility of a metamorphic origin for these zircons. Considering the well-preserved euhedral habits of the zircons and the highly developed magmatic oscillatory zoning, this study interprets them as magmatic zircons. Zircons with >10% discordance or <90% concordance were excluded from the age calculations. The 206Pb/238U apparent ages vary from 113 to 120 Ma. All analyzed spots are located on or near the concordia curve (Figure 3b) and yield a concordant age of 117.5 ± 2.1 Ma (MSWD = 3.6), which is considered to represent the formation age of the basalt (the MSWD is slightly higher because of the lower concordance of spot DDC2019729-1.4).

5.2. Major and Trace Element Characteristics

In this study, we conducted petrogeochemical analyses on a total of 33 samples of basalts from the RSAC, including both newly collected samples and those compiled from previous studies [15,21,28,29]. The analytical data are presented in Table 2 and Table 3. Based on the formation era of the rocks, the basalts within the RSAC can be categorized into Late Triassic basalts, Middle Jurassic basalts, and Early Cretaceous basalts. All samples have low loss-on-ignition (LOI) values (<4.65 wt%), suggesting that weathering or fluid modification after crystallization was negligible.

5.2.1. Late Triassic Basalts

Late Triassic basalts have SiO2 contents ranging from 41.48 to 44.39%, TiO2 from 0.71 to 1.66%, Al2O3 from 2.46 to 5.31%, K2O + Na2O from 0.21% to 0.42%, CaO from 8.64 to 13.03%, TFe2O3 from 14.97 to 20.39%, MgO from 20.85 to 25.00%, and low concentrations MnO and P2O5. On the Total alkali vs. silica (TAS) diagram (Figure 4a), the samples are plotted in the picrio-basalt field. On the K2O vs. SiO2 diagram (Figure 4b), they are plotted in low-potassium calc-alkaline field. On the MgO vs. SiO2 diagram (Figure 4c), they are plotted in the komatiite field (five samples) and melilitite field (one sample). Therefore, the assemblages of late Triassic basalts are komatites–melilitite.
Moreover, on the Zr/Ti vs. Nb/Y diagram (Figure 4d), they are plotted in the sub-alkaline basalts field. The spider diagrams of trace elements for Late Triassic basalts (Figure 5a) show the enrichment of elements such as U and Eu and depletion in elements like Ba, Nb, and Zr, with high field strength elements (HFSEs) such as Nb and Zr exhibiting negative anomalies. They have a rare earth element (REE) content ranging from 11.95 to 22.90 ppm, with the enrichment of light rare earths and depletion of heavy rare earths (Figure 5b).

5.2.2. Middle Jurassic Basalts

Middle Jurassic basalts have SiO2 contents ranging from 46.06 to 53.11%, TiO2 from 2.33 to 3.54%, Al2O3 from 11.01 to 15.23%, K2O + Na2O from 3.20 to 4.86%, CaO from 7.84 to 11.70%, TFe2O3 from 8.61 to 15.08%, MgO from 3.72 to 10.00%, and P2O5 from 0.28 to 3.07%. On the TAS diagram (Figure 4a), the samples are plotted in the sub-alkaline basalts field (21 samples) and alkali basalts (4 samples). On the K2O vs. SiO2 diagram (Figure 4b), they are plotted in the low-potassium calc-alkaline to shoshonitic field. On the MgO vs. SiO2 diagram (Figure 4c), they are plotted in the basalt field (24 samples) and magnesium andesite (1 sample). Therefore, the assemblages of late Triassic basalts are basalt–andesite.
Moreover, on the Zr/Ti vs. Nb/Y diagram (Figure 4d), they are plotted in the alkali basalts and trachyandesite field. The spider diagrams of trace elements for Middle Jurassic basalts (Figure 5a) show similarities to the trace element standard curve for OIB, with the relative enrichment of elements such as Th, U, and Zr and relative depletion of HFSEs like Sm and Hf. HFSEs such as Nb, Ta, Zr, and Hf do not exhibit negative anomalies. They have REE contents ranging from 115.33 and 868.11 ppm, indicating LREE enrichment, similar to OIB, and with comparable abundance.

5.2.3. Early Cretaceous Basalts

Early Cretaceous basalts have SiO2 contents ranging from 43.35 to 46.01%, TiO2 from 2.80 to 2.87%, Al2O3 from 10.25 to 10.33%, K2O + Na2O from 2.11 to 2.18%, CaO from 10.34 to 10.35%, TFe2O3 from 14.23 to 14.83%, MgO from 13.46 to 13.81%, and P2O5 from 0.31 to 0.32%. On the TAS diagram (Figure 4a), they are plotted in the sub-alkaline basalts field. On the K2O vs. SiO2 diagram (Figure 4b), they are plotted in the low-potassium calc-alkaline to shoshonitic field. On the MgO vs. SiO2 diagram (Figure 4c), they are plotted in the basalt picrites field. Therefore, the assemblages of late Triassic basalts are picrites.
Moreover, on the Zr/Ti vs. Nb/Y diagram (Figure 4d), they are plotted in the alkali basalts field. The spider diagrams of trace elements for Middle Jurassic basalts (Figure 5a) show similarities to the trace element standard curve for OIB, with the relative enrichment of elements such as Nb, Th, U, and Zr and relative depletion of elements like Ba and Sr. HFSEs such as Nb, Ta, Zr, and Hf do not exhibit negative anomalies. They have REE contents ranging from 118.21 and 121.76 ppm, indicating LREE enrichment, similar to OIB, and with comparable abundance.

6. Discussion

6.1. The Eras of Basalts in the Raohe Subduction–Accretion Complex

Previous geochronological studies on mafic–ultramafic components within the RSAC suggested Late Triassic to Middle Jurassic emplacement ages (166–222 Ma). However, our new zircon U-Pb dating yields a significantly younger Early Cretaceous age of 117.5 ± 2.1 Ma for the pillow basalts (Figure 1). The selected zircons exhibit distinct oscillatory zoning, confirming their magmatic origin. Furthermore, the Th/U ratios are greater than 0.1, and strict data screening was performed to ensure the credibility of the results.
Published datasets contain overlooked younger ages aligning with our results. For instance, samples 14JH-42-02/14JH-42-04 (206Pb/238U: 1733 ± 22 Ma, 2285 ± 48 Ma) and RH03-1-02/RH03-1-03 (207Pb/235U: <172 ± 1 Ma), reported by [21] and [41] respectively, were either statistically reconciled or excluded despite their temporal proximity to our Early Cretaceous constraints (Table 4 and Figure 6). Field observations and microscopic analyses confirm that the studied basalts retain primary magmatic textures without metamorphic overprinting or deformational fabrics, validating the reliability of our geochronological interpretations. These findings necessitate revising the basalts’ chronology of the RSAC into three periods: The Early Cretaceous, Middle Jurassic, and Late Triassic.
In addition, Late Triassic basalts are dominated by komatiite–melilitite assemblages exhibiting distinctive spinifex textures (indicative of rapid quenching). These rocks feature high-Mg lavas (MgO = 20–25wt%) and vesicular amygdales (5 vol.%) filled with carbonate/chlorite [15,21]. In contrast, Middle Jurassic basalts are characterized by well-developed pillow structures (20–50 cm diameter) and magnesian andesite interlayers, containing zoned clinopyroxene and apatite–ilmenite microlites within an intergranular matrix [29,41]. These petrographic characteristics distinctly differ from those of the Early Cretaceous basalts described in this study, further supporting the existence of three discrete basalt episodes in the region.

6.2. Characteristics and Petrogenesis of Basalts

Plate tectonic cycles drive the transition between oceanic and continental crust, which makes the study of the demise of ancient oceans a key to revealing Earth’s dynamics [42,43]. The oceanic plate stratigraphy (OPS) system records the complete sequence of the oceanic crust from its generation at mid-ocean ridges to its subduction and destruction at trenches (igneous basement + sedimentary-volcanic cover) [44,45,46]. Oceanic plate tectonics (OPG) identifies remnants of ancient oceans within continents through multidisciplinary integration (including igneous petrology, geochemistry, and structural deformation) [47,48]. Since records of ancient oceans are often erased by subduction, igneous rock associations become the core carriers for reconstructing oceanic–continental transitions: from mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORBs), oceanic islands–seamount chains, to subduction-related arc magmatism and ophiolite/accretionary complexes [37,49,50,51]. Their geochemical signatures can precisely define tectonic settings and provide direct evidence to constrain the subduction processes of the ancient Pacific Ocean.
Late Triassic basalts are characterized by sub-alkaline, low-K compositions with komatiitic high-Mg melts. Geochemical discriminators (Figure 7 and Figure 8a–d) reveal transitional signatures: Y-Sr/Y ratios exclude arc/adakite affinities but align with boninites; Zr-Zr/Y and TiO2-MnO-P2O5 systematics straddle IAT and CAB fields; Nb/Yb-Th/Yb trends indicate mixing among N-MORB, E-MORB, and oceanic arcs. According to the above diagrams, Late Triassic basalts exhibit the characteristics of island arc basalts, as well as certain features of E-MORBs and continental arc basalts, with the presence of boninite and komatiite. This is similar to the old oceanic crust initial arc that shows low-potassium and tholeiitic characteristics [52].
Middle Jurassic basalts exhibit alkaline and sub-alkaline, with calc-alkaline-tholeiitic trends diagnostic of subduction-related arcs. While Y-Sr/Y plots confirm arc signatures (Figure 7), Zr-Zr/Y and TiO2-MnO-P2O5 diagrams paradoxically plot within WPB and OIA fields (Figure 8a,b), and Nb/Yb-Th/Yb systematics further demonstrate E-MORB–OIB transitional sources (Figure 8c,d), implying their formation in a young oceanic crust subduction setting.
Early Cretaceous pillow basalts display distinct high-Mg# (mean 70) compositions compared to Jurassic counterparts. Despite arc-like Y-Sr/Y signals (Figure 7), their WPB-OIT overlaps in Zr-Zr/Y and TiO2-MnO-P2O5 plots (Figure 8a,b), coupled with E-MORB––OIB hybridization in the Nb/Yb-Th/Yb space (Figure 8c,d), which argues for within-plate magmatism with OIB affinity. This likely records back-arc rifting following ridge-trench collision, marking the terminal stage of mid-ocean ridge subduction. The pillows of these pillow-like basalts range from 20 to 50 cm in diameter, also indicating formation in a shallow marine environment.

6.3. Definition of the Raohe Subduction–Accretion Complex and Constraints on the Ocean–Continent Transition Process

Ophiolites, defined as tectonically emplaced fragments of the ancient oceanic lithosphere, are characterized by a complete pseudostratigraphy including mantle peridotites, ultramafic-mafic cumulates, sheeted dikes, pillow basalts, and pelagic sediments [57]. In contrast, subduction–accretion complexes comprise tectonically juxtaposed blocks (e.g., igneous rocks, cherts, limestones) within a matrix of trench–slope turbidites, recording progressive tectonic stacking during oceanic plate subduction [58,59,60,61].
In contrast, the RSAC exhibits diagnostic features of a subduction–accretion system: (1) discrete tectonic blocks including ultramafic-gabbro suites (Xiangyangchuan-Dadingzishan, 220 Ma cumulate gabbros) and mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB) fragments (Baliqiao, 170 Ma pillow basalts), occurring as fault-bounded slices; (2) chert–shale-limestone assemblages with distinct matrix relationships—siliceous blocks (central Raohe-Yuejinshan) separated by a turbiditic matrix—while limestone blocks (Shichang-Hongqiling) are embedded within a weakly sheared matrix. These blocks, spanning Late Triassic to Cretaceous ages, are hosted in trench–slope turbidites of the Yongfuqiao Formation (silty slate/sandstone; [23]. And the marked age disparities preclude a unified ophiolitic sequence, instead reflecting episodic accretion.
Late Triassic basalts exhibit low-K tholeiitic compositions with komatiitic, boninite-like Y-Sr/Y ratios (Figure 7), and transitional Nb/Yb-Th/Yb trends (N-MORB to arc mixing; Figure 8c,d). These signatures, coupled with coeval oceanic island-derived cumulate gabbros [23], suggest arc magmatism atop the >220 Ma oceanic crust, analogous to nascent IBM-type arcs [62]. This constrains Paleo-Pacific subduction initiation to ≥220 Ma, predating accretion by >25 Myr (Figure 9a).
Middle Jurassic suites display a bimodal geochemistry: sub-alkaline basalts show arc-like Y-Sr/Y ratios (Figure 7) but are paradoxically plotted in OIA/WPB fields (TiO2-MnO-P2O5; Figure 8b). Alkaline basalts exhibit OIB-like Nb/Yb-Th/Yb trends (Figure 8c) and MORB–OIB hybridization (Zr-Zr/Y; Figure 8a). This duality reflects concurrent arc magmatism and plume-influenced MORB–OIB melting during young slab subduction. The intrusion of 120~140 Ma Hamatong plutons into these basalts confirms pre-Cretaceous accretion (Figure 9b).
Early Cretaceous basalts are distinguished by high-Mg and TiO2/Yb < 2.0 compositions and OIB-like affinities (Nb/Yb-TiO2/Yb; Figure 8d). The overlying Tithonian–Aptian marine clastics (Dong’anzhen/Dajiashan Fm.) constrain final accretion prior to ~120 Ma (Figure 9c). These features record back-arc basin development postdating ridge subduction, marking the transition to continental arc stabilization.
The RSAC documents Paleo-Pacific subduction initiation by the Late Triassic, challenging Permian–Cretaceous models [10,63,64]. Its multistage accretion—from proto-arc formation to ridge-trench collision and back-arc rifting—underscores the role of subduction–accretion complexes in reconstructing oceanic closure dynamics.

7. Conclusions

Zircon U-Pb geochronology constrains the emplacement age of pillow basalts in the RSAC to the Early Cretaceous (117.5 ± 2.1 Ma). Integrated with prior studies, the basalts in this region are classified into three distinct phases: Late Triassic (210~230 Ma), Middle Jurassic (160~172 Ma), and the newly defined Early Cretaceous episode. These phases systematically document the multistage subduction–accretion processes of the Paleo-Pacific Plate from the Late Triassic to Early Cretaceous.
The Raohe subduction–accretion complex contains components such as pillow basalts, cumulate gabbros, gabbros, and deep-to-shallow marine sediments that were formed in multiple periods and various tectonic settings. Therefore, it is more accurate to name it the Raohe subduction–accretion complex.
Based on the igneous associations, temporal characteristics, and regional tectonic evolution, this study proposes the following: Late Triassic basalts represent products of an initial arc formed on an ancient oceanic crust, Middle Jurassic basalts originated from the subduction of the young oceanic crust, and Early Cretaceous basalts were generated in a back-arc basin.
It is speculated that the Paleo-Pacific had a considerable scale by the Late Triassic and already had units such as juvenile arcs and oceanic islands similar to the current IBM system. In the Middle Jurassic, there was a subduction system of the young oceanic crust, which was accreted onto the shallow marine–continental margin by the Early Cretaceous (where the marine Dajiashan Formation covers the complex). By the Early Cretaceous (around 117 Ma), systems such as back-arc basins were also developed. The subduction–accretion complex must have been in place prior to the deposition of the marine sediments of the Dajiashan Formation in the Early Cretaceous.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Q.L.; Data provision, S.T.; Formal analysis, Q.L.; Fieldwork, S.T.; Investigation, Q.L., C.L., J.D. and S.T.; Supervision, C.L.; Writing—original draft, Q.L.; Writing—review & editing, Q.L., C.L., J.L. and J.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

Compilation of China Regional Geological Annals and Associated Map Series (DD20221645); Update and Sharing of Geological Maps for National Land and Marine Areas (DD20190370); National Geological Structural Zonation and Comprehensive Integration of Regional Geological Surveys (DD2016-0345); Pilot Project on 1:50,000 Specialized Geological Mapping of Intrusive Rocks and Novel Methodologies in Geological Mapping (DD20160123 (DD-16-049; D1522; 1212011121075; 1212010911028; 12120114020901); National Natural Science Foundation of China Youth Fund Project (NSFC40802020).

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors on request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. (a) Tectonic outline of NE China; (b) geological map of the Wandashan Block showing sample locations (modified by [14,15,21,27,28,29,30,31,32]).
Figure 1. (a) Tectonic outline of NE China; (b) geological map of the Wandashan Block showing sample locations (modified by [14,15,21,27,28,29,30,31,32]).
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Figure 2. Geological cross-section (a), representative field photos (b,c), and photomicrographs (d,e) of studied samples from the Raohe Subduction-Accretion Complex, Wandashan Block, NE China.
Figure 2. Geological cross-section (a), representative field photos (b,c), and photomicrographs (d,e) of studied samples from the Raohe Subduction-Accretion Complex, Wandashan Block, NE China.
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Figure 3. Cathodoluminescence images (a) and U-Pb concordia diagrams and weighted mean ages (b) of zircons for basalt (DDC2019729-1) from the Raohe Subduction–Accretion Complex, Wandashan Block, NE China.
Figure 3. Cathodoluminescence images (a) and U-Pb concordia diagrams and weighted mean ages (b) of zircons for basalt (DDC2019729-1) from the Raohe Subduction–Accretion Complex, Wandashan Block, NE China.
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Figure 4. (a) Total alkali vs. silica (TAS) diagram (after [34]); the dashed line represents the alkaline and sub-alkaline boundary according to Irvine, T.N. et al., 1971. (b) K2O vs. SiO2 diagram (after [35]). (c) MgO vs. SiO2 diagram (parameters and boundaries for komatiite, meimechite, picrite, and boninite are according to [36]), HMA/MA, LT-HMA, MT-HMA, T-HMA, and MA/basalt-melt boundaries are according to [37]; (d) Zr/Ti vs. Nb/Y diagram (according to [38]), Late Triassic basalt data are from [28], and Middle Jurassic basalt data are from [15,21,29].
Figure 4. (a) Total alkali vs. silica (TAS) diagram (after [34]); the dashed line represents the alkaline and sub-alkaline boundary according to Irvine, T.N. et al., 1971. (b) K2O vs. SiO2 diagram (after [35]). (c) MgO vs. SiO2 diagram (parameters and boundaries for komatiite, meimechite, picrite, and boninite are according to [36]), HMA/MA, LT-HMA, MT-HMA, T-HMA, and MA/basalt-melt boundaries are according to [37]; (d) Zr/Ti vs. Nb/Y diagram (according to [38]), Late Triassic basalt data are from [28], and Middle Jurassic basalt data are from [15,21,29].
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Figure 5. (a) Trace element primitive mantle-normalized spider diagrams and (b) rare earth element chondrite-normalized patterns. Standardized data of Ocean Island Basalts (OIBs), Normal Mid Ocean Ridge Basalt (N-MORB), Enriched Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalt (E-MORB), and Global Subducting Sediment (GLOSS) of chondrites are taken from [39], chondrite normalization values are quoted from [40], Late Triassic basalt data are from [28], and Middle Jurassic basalt data are from [15,21,29].
Figure 5. (a) Trace element primitive mantle-normalized spider diagrams and (b) rare earth element chondrite-normalized patterns. Standardized data of Ocean Island Basalts (OIBs), Normal Mid Ocean Ridge Basalt (N-MORB), Enriched Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalt (E-MORB), and Global Subducting Sediment (GLOSS) of chondrites are taken from [39], chondrite normalization values are quoted from [40], Late Triassic basalt data are from [28], and Middle Jurassic basalt data are from [15,21,29].
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Figure 6. Histogram distribution of zircon U-Pb ages for basalts from Raohe Subduction–Accretion Complex: cross-validation of 206Pb/238U and 205Pb/237U chronometers [21,41].
Figure 6. Histogram distribution of zircon U-Pb ages for basalts from Raohe Subduction–Accretion Complex: cross-validation of 206Pb/238U and 205Pb/237U chronometers [21,41].
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Figure 7. Y vs. Sr/Y diagram for basalts from the Raohe Subduction–Accretion Complex of the Wandashan Block (modified by [52,53]).
Figure 7. Y vs. Sr/Y diagram for basalts from the Raohe Subduction–Accretion Complex of the Wandashan Block (modified by [52,53]).
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Figure 8. Tectonic discrimination diagrams for basalts from the Raohe Subduction–Accretion Complex of the Wandashan Block. (a) Zr vs. Zr/Y diagram (after [54]); (b) TiO2-MnO × 10-P2O5 × 10 (after [55]); (c) Nb/Yb vs. Th/Yb (after [54]); (d) Nb/Yb vs. TiO2/Yb (after [56]).
Figure 8. Tectonic discrimination diagrams for basalts from the Raohe Subduction–Accretion Complex of the Wandashan Block. (a) Zr vs. Zr/Y diagram (after [54]); (b) TiO2-MnO × 10-P2O5 × 10 (after [55]); (c) Nb/Yb vs. Th/Yb (after [54]); (d) Nb/Yb vs. TiO2/Yb (after [56]).
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Figure 9. Tectonic evolution model of the Wandashan Block, NE China.
Figure 9. Tectonic evolution model of the Wandashan Block, NE China.
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Table 1. LA-ICP-MS U-Pb analysis results of zircon from Early Cretaceous basalt (DDC2019729-1) from the Raohe Subduction–Accretion Complex, Wandashan Block, NE China.
Table 1. LA-ICP-MS U-Pb analysis results of zircon from Early Cretaceous basalt (DDC2019729-1) from the Raohe Subduction–Accretion Complex, Wandashan Block, NE China.
Sample No.UThTh/UIsotopicratios Corrected for Common PbAge (Ma)
(10−6)207Pb/206Pb1σ207Pb/235U1σ206Pb/238U1σ207Pb/206Pb1σ207Pb/235U1σ206Pb/238U1σ
DDC2019729-1.17792210.280.049080.001190.124990.003050.018500.000201515712031181
DDC2019729-1.28803630.410.048600.001070.122440.002850.018280.000201295211731171
DDC2019729-1.376390.510.115030.001565.338350.078700.336590.00360188024187528187020
DDC2019729-1.46441160.180.089110.002280.207790.005390.016900.0001714074919251081
DDC2019729-1.5137410.300.066870.001181.302150.025690.140930.0015683437847178509
DDC2019729-1.695170.010.113800.001445.308980.071730.338360.00345186123187025187919
DDC2019729-1.72612721.040.057620.001150.480330.009760.060500.000615154439883794
DDC2019729-1.8345440.130.053150.002420.137580.006300.018800.0001933510313161201
DDC2019729-1.9288740.260.113080.001473.912930.056390.250970.00276184923161623144316
DDC2019729-1.105981550.260.114880.001494.222840.057350.266580.00261187823167823152315
DDC2019729-1.11681870.130.052430.001290.134720.003340.018650.000183045612831191
DDC2019729-1.126642500.380.046380.001330.116760.003350.018350.00019186911231171
DDC2019729-1.135711820.320.077350.000991.875240.026930.175730.00190113026107215104411
DDC2019729-1.143071880.610.043980.005570.053750.006650.008790.00010----537561
DDC2019729-1.154171170.280.051370.002160.125430.005310.017740.000172579712051131
DDC2019729-1.166702490.370.079050.001011.781240.024120.163530.0016611732510391497610
DDC2019729-1.1775430.570.179320.0023811.814980.173280.477510.00511264722259038251627
DDC2019729-1.183341780.530.163710.0021210.109260.140290.447930.00460249422244534238624
DDC2019729-1.194841170.240.051260.001790.130530.004580.018500.000182528012541181
Table 2. Major element data of basalts from the Raohe Subduction–Accretion Complex, Wandashan Block, NE China.
Table 2. Major element data of basalts from the Raohe Subduction–Accretion Complex, Wandashan Block, NE China.
Sampling NumberLithologyAgeSiO2TiO2Al2O3TFe2O3MnOMgOCaONa2OK2OP2O5LOIMg#References
ωB/%
DDC2019729-1Pillow basalt117.5 ± 2.1 Ma43.492.689.8214.220.1913.249.921.930.090.301.6070.39This study
DDC2019729-244.099.902.7513.680.2012.909.912.000.090.313.9070.66
15HLJ28aBasalt168 ± 2 Ma48.032.4911.5214.800.247.679.072.980.600.731.5756.96[29]
15HLJ28b44.363.3412.1013.620.169.199.462.990.290.802.8763.28
15HLJ28c45.193.0912.6212.510.159.639.083.080.260.733.0866.28
15HLJ28d49.822.7013.9010.520.216.178.864.310.320.611.5059.96
04H-70Basaltic andesite167 ± 1 Ma51.702.7812.1410.220.155.6810.493.540.300.343.5158.66[15]
04H-7150.933.3913.7712.010.213.659.223.150.470.593.8043.69
04H-7251.063.3413.9611.580.164.589.163.950.790.480.6859.14
04H-73Basalt48.463.0012.2713.330.196.4811.342.670.750.350.8653.91
04H-8048.823.0312.0014.730.197.437.453.070.160.352.4860.12
04H-8148.862.4710.6212.530.179.299.762.960.090.272.6868.68
04H-8249.432.4910.5512.710.169.418.922.920.200.282.6368.86
04H-8349.002.4210.4812.560.179.329.642.900.160.272.7868.80
04H-8449.182.4910.6312.770.179.329.332.980.110.302.4568.34
14JH40-1Basalt166 ± 2 Ma48.112.9614.6010.000.335.569.182.142.282.811.9658.67[21]
14JH40-249.792.2714.309.740.274.749.812.981.392.172.4055.41
14JH40-349.202.5114.5710.760.364.918.982.251.292.772.2553.82
14JH40-447.252.9114.8310.620.335.779.012.521.902.612.2758.11
14JH40-550.542.4514.839.740.293.6210.301.712.021.862.2548.69
14JH40-649.413.0813.7010.150.364.989.782.111.862.382.3955.61
14JH41-150.592.5914.618.400.334.779.402.012.482.372.3659.18
14JH41-250.392.8214.919.430.335.498.962.131.142.611.9859.78
14JH41-346.923.3614.6010.690.375.819.892.621.332.961.3458.12
14JH41-450.142.6013.579.830.314.919.851.612.872.102.0556.05
14JH41-546.983.4814.4310.660.436.129.961.741.473.021.1959.45
14JH41-649.952.6413.239.560.326.4110.111.781.492.232.0863.13
BLQ-1Picro-basalt222 ± 10 Ma44.500.785.3615.790.1420.9012.350.400.020.013.9377.17[28]
BLQ-243.001.004.9520.560.1723.008.800.320.010.014.6574.07
BLQ-343.300.653.0821.280.1926.009.600.250.010.022.4575.73
BLQ-442.001.665.4117.780.1722.909.640.320.010.054.4876.69
BLQ-844.800.732.5417.480.1725.8011.450.210.010.011.8379.03
BLQ-944.600.724.5815.230.1522.9013.250.230.010.013.0679.34
Table 3. Trace element data of basalts (ppm) from the Raohe Subduction–Accretion Complex, Wandashan Block, NE China.
Table 3. Trace element data of basalts (ppm) from the Raohe Subduction–Accretion Complex, Wandashan Block, NE China.
No.123456789101112131415
Sampling NumberDDC2019729-1.1DDC2019729-1.215HLJ28a15HLJ28b15HLJ28c15HLJ28d04H-7004H-7104H-7204H-7304H-8004H-8104H-8204H-8304H-84
LithologyPillow basaltBasaltBasaltic andesiteBasalt
Age117.5 ± 2.1 Ma168 ± 2 Ma167 ± 1 Ma
Rb4.2417.2016.406.206.707.306.0012.0014.0013.006.004.006.005.005.00
Ba21.6824.60261.0093.9063.20236.00116.00172.00310.00300.0064.0051.4059.2061.1044.80
Th2.514.026.215.755.565.233.845.182.694.002.351.511.892.161.98
U0.630.790.921.801.661.460.870.810.510.860.280.470.450.390.38
Nb28.1225.8069.8073.4067.5059.6029.3034.3029.5043.5029.6021.4024.9025.0023.90
Ta2.171.824.404.704.403.601.792.701.752.581.861.531.461.531.45
La20.5522.2052.5059.0052.6046.1021.4236.7023.7935.1540.0919.3119.6418.6923.91
Ce40.6141.10109.10114.50107.5087.7043.8282.4650.9370.1269.1441.5342.5039.5245.77
Nd27.6225.1048.3053.9050.0039.6028.5148.3833.3240.4232.1326.1326.5125.5328.33
Sr149.14142.00337.00289.00236.00553.00218.00552.00466.00282.00264.00255.00306.00332.00204.00
Sm6.415.7610.0511.8010.508.296.3510.357.078.626.155.886.035.916.13
Hf6.114.936.408.006.805.504.406.705.407.704.603.404.303.604.00
Zr213.95173.00317.00353.00309.00246.00195.00311.00208.00271.00211.00172.00177.00169.00174.00
Eu1.851.703.303.933.462.942.163.002.492.771.961.941.971.962.09
Y25.6822.4033.3035.6033.9032.3027.9435.7430.4227.6041.8821.2722.1921.7621.98
Yb2.161.841.811.831.911.961.962.702.282.272.071.931.901.891.94
Lu0.300.270.250.240.260.260.290.370.330.310.300.280.270.270.28
Pr6.355.6411.7513.1012.209.976.4411.097.389.988.696.216.405.936.71
Gd5.605.289.9811.1510.108.926.509.517.368.196.016.056.035.986.22
Tb1.010.881.251.411.381.171.031.431.151.280.900.930.960.950.97
Dy5.514.996.557.717.326.695.467.726.166.745.145.165.275.135.34
Ho0.980.861.191.291.241.110.991.371.121.230.970.950.950.910.98
Er2.462.262.712.872.932.732.423.362.792.932.582.422.442.322.42
Tm0.360.330.350.360.360.380.330.480.410.400.370.350.340.340.33
ReferencesThis study[29][15]
No.161718192021222324252627282930313233
Sampling Number14JH40-114JH40-214JH40-314JH40-414JH40-514JH40-614JH41-114JH41-214JH41-314JH41-414JH41-514JH41-6BLQ-1BLQ-2BLQ-3BLQ-4BLQ-8BLQ-9
LithologyBasaltPicro-basalt
Age166 ± 2 Ma222 ± 10 Ma
Rb101.00114.00119.00125.00119.00122.0085.9099.30123.00110.00120.00129.000.600.800.400.500.400.80
Ba1220.001460.001880.001780.001570.001680.001370.001170.001490.001930.001180.001310.009.301.400.704.004.606.20
Th29.7028.4027.6028.3027.6027.3028.0027.4027.6028.4028.2026.400.090.050.060.180.050.10
U8.727.858.037.527.987.838.678.209.089.217.917.260.050.050.080.080.400.07
Nb218.00242.00252.00242.00230.00238.00210.00213.00215.00222.00214.00196.001.301.200.202.900.200.40
Ta14.8014.5614.6414.1615.0413.8414.4012.5614.2414.8014.0012.960.100.100.100.200.100.10
La195.00184.00185.00175.00160.00161.00172.00155.00152.00146.00158.00147.002.401.201.802.602.802.70
Ce367.00336.00334.00324.00290.00296.00302.00317.00317.00311.00322.00294.006.003.004.306.406.306.40
Nd159.00146.00141.00152.00137.00133.00140.00142.00138.00138.00149.00138.004.602.503.304.804.804.50
Sr1557.001602.001893.001837.001534.001590.001658.001322.001176.001187.001165.001165.0061.6082.3046.0046.8035.0046.50
Sm29.7028.0027.6027.4027.2024.9026.8026.6026.2026.5028.4026.201.520.891.111.601.461.42
Hf19.1017.9018.6017.1017.9017.5017.8017.4017.5018.3018.7016.700.900.700.601.400.900.90
Zr1010.001060.001090.001070.00925.00985.001160.00947.00979.001030.00997.00940.0019.0020.0016.0043.0018.0021.00
Eu8.908.598.818.698.247.388.078.087.657.318.467.550.560.320.410.660.520.53
Y74.6070.0072.1080.6066.7068.7072.2070.1070.9069.6074.3068.508.204.706.307.408.007.90
Yb4.924.654.744.514.434.264.684.574.584.674.644.400.650.400.490.590.640.47
Lu0.630.590.570.620.550.530.600.580.590.580.640.570.090.050.070.070.080.08
Pr42.4039.5040.8041.0038.6037.0037.8039.3039.0039.1039.6038.000.880.440.660.940.910.85
Gd27.6525.5924.7825.4424.7223.0024.6125.5224.5524.7825.5823.652.011.211.551.932.182.05
Tb3.843.543.513.513.453.323.523.533.453.453.633.460.280.170.230.280.290.29
Dy17.9016.2016.2016.3016.1015.2016.6016.4016.2016.0016.5015.301.740.991.341.711.691.69
Ho3.042.802.762.832.722.572.742.742.782.772.902.630.320.190.270.290.340.32
Er7.267.007.087.086.696.456.916.866.756.827.306.760.820.510.660.780.770.80
Tm0.870.820.840.860.780.740.810.770.810.810.860.780.110.080.090.110.120.11
References[21][28]
Table 4. LA-ICP-MS U-Pb analysis results of zircon from basalt in the previous studies of the Raohe Subduction–Accretion Complex.
Table 4. LA-ICP-MS U-Pb analysis results of zircon from basalt in the previous studies of the Raohe Subduction–Accretion Complex.
Sample No.UThTh/UIsotopicratios Corrected for Common PbAge (Ma)References
(10−6)207Pb/206Pb1σ207Pb/235U1σ206Pb/238U1σ207Pb/206Pb1σ207Pb/235U1σ206Pb/238U1σ
RH03-1-025324040.76 151140.026842 151141713[41]
RH03-1-032892850.99 136250.025962 136251653
14JH-42-023882800.720.109890.2571762190.308400.450179842176219173322[21]
14JH-42-03521570.110.068260.431756320.117430.3018771267563271617
14JH-42-0476670.880.143150.5442260340.418671.061226664226034225548
14JH-42-052941360.460.052340.696292320.046120.2023002782923229112
14JH-42-08554670.120.067760.266719190.110180.186861797191967411
14JH-42-119482050.220.067390.257704180.107660.177850777041865910
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Liu, Q.; Liu, C.; Liu, J.; Deng, J.; Tian, S. Genesis of Basalts of the Raohe Subduction–Accretion Complex in the Wandashan Block, NE China, and Its Inspirations for Evolution of the Paleo-Pacific Ocean. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 8139. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15158139

AMA Style

Liu Q, Liu C, Liu J, Deng J, Tian S. Genesis of Basalts of the Raohe Subduction–Accretion Complex in the Wandashan Block, NE China, and Its Inspirations for Evolution of the Paleo-Pacific Ocean. Applied Sciences. 2025; 15(15):8139. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15158139

Chicago/Turabian Style

Liu, Qing, Cui Liu, Jixu Liu, Jinfu Deng, and Shipan Tian. 2025. "Genesis of Basalts of the Raohe Subduction–Accretion Complex in the Wandashan Block, NE China, and Its Inspirations for Evolution of the Paleo-Pacific Ocean" Applied Sciences 15, no. 15: 8139. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15158139

APA Style

Liu, Q., Liu, C., Liu, J., Deng, J., & Tian, S. (2025). Genesis of Basalts of the Raohe Subduction–Accretion Complex in the Wandashan Block, NE China, and Its Inspirations for Evolution of the Paleo-Pacific Ocean. Applied Sciences, 15(15), 8139. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15158139

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