Low-Carbon Certification Systems in Agriculture: A Review

Abstract

The use of certification systems in agriculture mitigates greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and promotes sustainable low-carbon practices. Their implementation contributes to the rational use of resources and results in the development of a human-centric economy that prioritizes people’s actual needs towards sustainable economic growth. Some low-carbon certification systems for agricultural products have been developed in European Union (EU) countries and elsewhere; however, their reliability in assessing agricultural emissions at the farm level and the anticipated benefits are not yet adequately justified. This review paper presents and discusses the most important existing certification systems, namely, Solagro, Label bas Carbone/LCL, LEAF Marque Standard, and Wineries for Climate Protection, the one being developed in the frame of the ClimaMED LIFE project, and the one developed almost 10 years ago in the Republic of Korea. The structure of these systems and their benefits and challenges are discussed. More emphasis is given to the EU certification schemes and the impact they may have towards meeting the targets of the Green Deal, which aims to reduce GHG emissions at least 55% by 2030 compared to 1990 levels and make Europe climate neutral by 2050.

1. Introduction

Today, there is a very urgent need to address climate change and its impact on the environment, and more specifically on agriculture, towards a sustainable future [1,2]. As one of the most significant contributors to GHG emissions, agriculture plays a crucial role in mitigating climate change. In this line, the direct emissions of GHGs from agriculture reach 0.442 Gt CO_2eq. and account for approximately 10% of total EU emissions. Furthermore, Europe’s ambition to move towards a low-carbon economy by 2050 means that the non-Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS) GHG emissions have to be reduced by 30% until 2030, compared to 2005 levels [3].

The agricultural sector also faces several challenges in relation to climate change, including increased frequency of extreme weather events (heat waves and mega-fires, heavy rainfalls and floods, tornadoes, and tropical cyclones), water scarcity, soil degradation, and changing patterns of pests and diseases [4]. These challenges not only threaten food security and rural livelihoods but also result in an increased carbon footprint of the sector [5].

Low-carbon certifications have emerged as an effective tool to incentivize and recognize good agricultural practices that promote sustainable farming techniques and minimize carbon emissions [6]. They enable farmers and agricultural producers to determine, reduce, and offset their carbon footprint, as well as to ensure transparency and accountability throughout the supply chain. Through the adoption of these tools, agricultural producers can implement climate-smart practices such as precision farming, agroforestry, and improved livestock management while at the same time decreasing GHG emissions and enhancing resilience and productivity.

In addition, these tools provide a competitive edge in the market by meeting the growing consumer demand for sustainable and eco-friendly products [7,8,9]. Consumers are increasingly seeking assurance that the products they purchase have a low environmental footprint. Low-carbon certifications provide this assurance, enable producers to access premium markets, and strengthen their brand reputation [10]. They also enable agricultural producers to demonstrate their commitment to sustainability and corporate social responsibility. By implementing the certification process and adhering to rigorous standards, farmers can communicate their environmental stewardship to stakeholders, including customers, investors, and regulatory bodies. This fosters trust and credibility, enhancing long-term relationships and enabling access to financial incentives and grants. In addition to consumer demand and corporate responsibility, low-carbon certifications also align with global sustainability goals and international commitments. The Paris Agreement, for instance, emphasizes the need to reduce GHG emissions and promote sustainable practices across sectors, including agriculture [11]. By embracing low-carbon certifications, agricultural producers contribute to meeting these global targets, demonstrate their dedication to climate action, and support the transition to a low-carbon economy [12,13].

Certification schemes often complement and promote environmental legislation compliance. Also, the outcome of the use of sustainability standards to enable compliance with environmental policies introduced by governments may also contribute to the improvement in the effectiveness of certification schemes [14].

An alternative low-carbon certification scheme may be related to the increase in soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks in agricultural soils. It is known that SOC removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and contributes towards achieving carbon neutrality. However, an increase in SOC levels assumes that farmers invest in modern agricultural management practices prior to obtaining a private soil carbon certificate that may compensate for incurred costs. In these schemes, farmers need to register their fields with commercial certificate providers who certify SOC increases, while certificates may be sold as voluntary emission offsets on the carbon market [15].

In this context, the present study aims to identify and critically examine the most established and operational low-carbon certification systems in agriculture in order to evaluate their effectiveness in reducing GHG emissions and promote sustainable farming practices that reduce environmental impact. Given that agriculture is both a major contributor to and a potential mitigator of climate change, low-carbon certification systems represent a crucial tool within a comprehensive sustainability approach, linking environmental remediation, regulatory/policy frameworks, and the socioeconomic dimensions of sustainable land management. So far, most efforts towards developing low-carbon certification schemes were made in Europe. It is underlined, though, that mitigation of GHG also requires efforts from major non-EU countries. It is known that the United States, China, and Russia have the highest responsibility in controlling climate change by drastically decreasing CO₂ emissions in agriculture. However, until now, the implementation of climate and trade policies on agricultural-related emissions has resulted in limited progress in non-EU countries. In fact, agricultural development resulted in increased CO₂ emissions in third countries, while the role of specific free trade agreements in emission cuts cannot be reliably assessed [16].

2. Eco/Green Certification Systems in Agriculture

Certification is a procedure by which a third party provides written assurance that a product, process, or service along the supply chain conforms with certain standards [17]. Certification systems are a crucial component of many industries and ensure that their owners possess the necessary qualifications to perform their duties competently and safely. The most common types of certification systems include professional certification, management system certification, and product certification [18].

Certification of products is a process by which a third party confirms that a product meets certain standards or criteria, mainly related to quality, safety, and environmental impact. Once a product has been certified, it is given a mark or label that indicates its compliance with these standards [19]. There are several international standards that govern the certification of products [20]. These include the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), the British Standards Institution (BSI), the French Ministry for Ecological Transition (METS), the International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD), the World Resources Institute (WRI), the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD), the Product/Organization Environmental Footprint (P/O EF), and The European Food Sustainable Consumption and Production (SCP) Round Table.

Certification in the agricultural sector provides a mechanism to verify and communicate the quality and sustainability of agricultural products [21,22,23]. Eco/green certification systems in agriculture have attracted great interest in recent years as a means to promote sustainable practices and meet consumer demand for environmentally friendly products. They aim to quantify and reduce GHG emissions associated with agricultural production as well as promote sustainable farming practices by considering factors such as manure management, fertilizer application, and energy use. The scope of eco/green certification has expanded beyond individual products to cover entire supply chains, addressing also social and economic dimensions.

Various certification schemes have been established globally to address different aspects of agricultural production, including organic farming, fair trade practices, sustainable agriculture, and low carbon/GHG emissions [24]. These schemes involve a set of standards and criteria that farmers must meet to obtain certification for their products. Organic certification is one of the most well-known and widely practiced forms of agricultural certification. It ensures that agricultural products are produced without the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Furthermore, in the last years, a lot of emphasis has been given to standardization, certification, and development of biobased slow-release fertilizers (SRFs), such as biochar, to reduce operating costs and environmental impacts, improve crop growth and quality, and thus promote sustainable agriculture [25,26]

Organic certification programs in agriculture have emerged to address environmental and social concerns in global supply chains [27]. These programs assess agricultural practices based on criteria such as soil health, water conservation, biodiversity conservation, and labor conditions and involve traceability systems to verify sustainability claims, with different approaches used depending on market factors [28]. They provide assurance to consumers that the certified products are produced in an environmentally responsible and socially conscious manner.

The low-carbon certification systems aim to establish a baseline scenario, facilitate effective carbon reduction measures, and define a crediting period to incentivize and reward farmers for their efforts in mitigating GHGs (Figure 1). The baseline scenario serves as the reference point and is crucial for quantifying the carbon reduction achieved through sustainable farming practices. It takes into account factors such as farm management practices, inputs, and historical emission data [7].

The crediting period refers to the duration over which carbon reduction activities are measured and credited. The duration of the crediting period can vary depending on the certification system and the specific agricultural activities being assessed [29,30]. For example, some systems may involve shorter crediting periods when practices have an immediate carbon reduction impact. The crediting period allows farmers to track and measure their progress in reducing emissions, providing them with a clear incentive to continue implementing sustainable practices.

Certification providers have a significant role in the field of eco/green certification, both at European and global levels. However, it is important to note that the certification process primarily relies on data collection from farmers that is subsequently utilized to calculate emissions [31]. The implementation of eco-certification systems in agriculture varies across countries and regions. Developed countries, such as EU member states, have well-established and regulated certification schemes supported by government policies and incentives (Regulation (EU) 2018/848). In contrast, developing countries often face challenges in implementing and enforcing certification standards due to limited resources, lack of infrastructure, and capacity constraints [24,32,33].

Despite the growth and positive impact of eco/green certification in agriculture, several challenges persist. One of the most important is the complexity and variability of certification systems, with multiple standards and labels available in the market that create confusion for consumers and do not allow producers to easily navigate the certification landscape. Furthermore, certification costs and administrative burdens pose barriers for small-scale farmers, limiting their access to certification [34,35,36].

The future of eco/green certification in agriculture is promising, as it continues to evolve and adapt to emerging sustainability challenges. There is a growing recognition among stakeholders, including governments, producers, and consumers, of the importance of eco-certification in addressing environmental degradation, climate change, and social inequality [37,38,39]. Efforts are being made to harmonize certification standards, enhance transparency, and strengthen certification governance. Additionally, digital technologies, such as blockchain and remote sensing, are being explored to enhance traceability and monitoring of certified products [40].

The adoption of eco/low-carbon certification systems in agriculture requires supportive policy and regulatory frameworks at national and international levels [41,42,43]. Governments play a crucial role in incentivizing and promoting sustainable farming practices through financial incentives, subsidies, and market-based mechanisms. Additionally, international agreements and initiatives, such as the Paris Agreement and the Sustainable Development Goals, provide a framework for integrating low-carbon agriculture into global climate and development agendas [44,45,46].

3. Existing Low-Carbon Certification Systems

So far, only a few certification systems, covering a small number of agricultural products, are available in Europe and elsewhere. Furthermore, a major issue of concern is the legitimacy of these systems regarding the degree of inclusiveness and transparency of the decision-making process for setting standards. Most of these standards do not explicitly target climate change mitigation; however, some requirements are likely to enhance reduction in GHG emissions and carbon storage.

3.1. EU Countries

3.1.1. Solagro (EU)

In 2010, the European Commission, following a request from the European Parliament, carried out a pilot project on the “certification of low-carbon farming practices in the European Union” to promote reduction in GHG emissions in the sector [20]. The overall aim was to incorporate into policies initiatives that would be implemented by European farmers in order to promote the reduction in GHG emissions in agriculture and produce agricultural products with carbon-neutral or low-carbon-footprint farming practices.

The project included the following stages: (i) a review of existing farm-level lifecycle-based climate-related certification and labeling schemes, (ii) the development and testing of a user-friendly open-source carbon calculator suitable for assessing the lifecycle of GHG emissions from different types of farming systems across the entire EU, and (iii) the design/assessment of policy options for promoting low-carbon farming practices. The findings of this study indicated that there exist multiple options for using a farm-level carbon calculator for promoting low-carbon farming practices in the EU. An Excel-based carbon calculator was developed in the frame of the SOLAGRO project and evaluated by farmers in different EU member states (Figure 2) [47]. It was concluded that it is possible to envisage a certification scheme based on this calculator that would inform the granting of subsidies or assist in allocating support for rural development measures addressing climate change issues. However, after its development, no additional efforts or other initiatives were followed.

3.1.2. Low-Carbon Label (France)

The low-carbon label (LCL, “Label bas carbone” in French) is an official certification label created in 2018 by the French Ministry for the Ecological Transition (MTES) and the Institute for Climate Economics (I4CE) that aims to reduce GHG emissions in France by 2050 [31,48]. The label focuses on evaluating and acknowledging projects that successfully reduce GHG emissions, promotes a rigorous and transparent approach to emissions accounting, and emphasizes the importance of the development of robust methodologies and third-party verification (Figure 3). Public consultation is conducted for these methodologies that undergo review by a technical and scientific committee. Upon approval from the regulator, they become official for the Low-Carbon Label (LCL) and can be used by project developers to certify emission reductions. By obtaining the “Label Bas Carbone”, businesses and projects gain recognition for their efforts in reducing emissions and can establish themselves in the market as leaders in environmental sustainability.

The Carbon Gap organization, in its policy brief, highlights the significance of the low-carbon label as a policy instrument for encouraging carbon reduction activities and fostering the transition to a low-carbon society [49]. This label provides a clear and credible signal to consumers, investors, and stakeholders, enabling them to identify products, services, and projects that align with their sustainability goals. It also stimulates innovation and market development in low-carbon sectors by rewarding companies and initiatives that demonstrate emission reduction efforts. The policy brief emphasizes the need for a comprehensive and harmonized approach to low-carbon labeling to ensure consistency and reliability across different certification programs.

So far, LCL has established 11 approved low-carbon methods/practices for 5 sectors, including agriculture, forestry, building, transportation, and the maritime industry, while 24 others are still under development. The methodologies developed cover a range of activities, including (i) Afforestation, Reconstruction of degraded forest stands, Balivage (conversion of coppice into high forest on stumps); (ii) CarbonAgri, Hedges, Plantation of orchards, SOBAC’ECO TMM (developed by the company SOBAC), Ecomethane and Field/Large crops in the field of agriculture; (iii) renovation in construction; (iv) third place in transportation; and (v) Herbariums of Posidonia in the marine domain.

In the case of agriculture, LCL is designed based on the Carbon Agri method to recognize and reward farmers and agricultural businesses that implement measures to reduce GHG emissions and contribute to sustainable agricultural production [31,50] (Figure 4). By obtaining this certification, agribusinesses and farms demonstrate their dedication to mitigating climate change and showcase their efforts to operate in an environmentally responsible manner. In this context, LCL also provides consumers with a recognizable label that signifies the environmental responsibility and carbon consciousness of the purchased agricultural products.

The Carbon Agri method is designed to assess and quantify GHG emissions from agricultural activities and to develop a standardized approach for calculating carbon footprints in agriculture [31,51]. The method focuses on measuring emissions related to agricultural practices, including crop production, livestock management, and the use of inputs such as fertilizers and energy. It takes into account different emission sources, such as enteric fermentation from livestock, manure management, energy use in farming operations, and the release of nitrous oxide from agricultural soils. The Carbon Agri method provides guidelines and specific calculation factors to estimate emissions from various agricultural activities. It considers regional and sector-specific data to ensure accuracy and relevance to the French agricultural context. The method takes into account factors such as crop type, livestock species, and specific farming practices to tailor emission calculations to individual farms. The certification process typically involves an audit or assessment conducted by qualified professionals who evaluate the farm’s practices and the carbon reduction efforts taken. The assessment may include data collection, farm visits, and review of documentation to ensure compliance with the certification standards.

To calculate the carbon footprint using the Carbon Agri method, farmers need to collect relevant data for their agricultural practices, such as crop areas, livestock numbers, feed consumption, and energy use. This information is then used in combination with the calculation factors provided by the Carbon Agri method to estimate GHG emissions. The Carbon Agri method uses either the CAP’2ER^® tool [52] at level 2 (mixed farming and livestock farming) or any other tool that has been acknowledged as methodologically equivalent and certified by an independent third-party organization.

The application of the Carbon Agri method allows farmers to assess their emissions, identify emission hotspots, and develop targeted strategies to reduce their carbon footprint. Farmers aiming to obtain the “Label Bas Carbone” certification must demonstrate their commitment to reducing carbon emissions through the implementation of sustainable practices. Relevant activities that may be implemented include precision agriculture techniques to optimize fertilizer and water usage, conservation tillage or cover cropping to improve soil health and sequester carbon, and exploring the use of renewable energy for on-farm operations.

3.1.3. LEAF Marque Standard (UK)

The LEAF Marque Standard is a certification program developed in 2015 by LEAF (Linking Environment and Farming), a non-profit organization committed to promoting sustainable agriculture [53,54]. The standard provides a framework for assessing and recognizing environmentally responsible and socially sustainable farming practices. The LEAF Marque Standard sets out a checklist of criteria and requirements that farmers must comply with to obtain the certification [55]. These criteria include biodiversity conservation, soil and water management, energy efficiency, waste management, wildlife habitats, and social aspects such as worker welfare and community engagement (Figure 5).

One of the key features of the LEAF Marque Standard is the implementation of strategies to reduce GHG emissions and enhance carbon sequestration in soils and vegetation. These may include practices such as agroforestry, cover cropping, and conservation tillage. By increasing the organic matter content in soils and promoting vegetation growth, farms can actively sequester carbon from the atmosphere, contributing to the mitigation of climate change. The LEAF Marque Standard also places a strong emphasis on soil health. Farmers are required to implement practices that maintain and enhance soil quality, such as minimizing soil erosion, promoting organic matter content, and managing nutrient inputs effectively. Soil health is crucial for long-term agricultural sustainability, as it directly impacts crop productivity, water retention, and carbon sequestration.

Water management is another important aspect addressed by the LEAF Marque Standard. Farms seeking certification must implement strategies to minimize water usage, reduce water pollution, and manage water resources responsibly. This includes measures such as implementing efficient irrigation systems, monitoring water quality, and saving water through proper land management practices.

Social responsibility is another integral component of the LEAF Marque Standard. Farms seeking certification are required to demonstrate fair treatment of workers, comply with relevant labor laws, and contribute positively to local communities. This includes promoting good working conditions, providing training and development opportunities for staff, and engaging with local stakeholders.

The latest version, 16, of the LEAF Marque Standard that was issued on 1 October 2022 and became effective on 1 April 2023 incorporates advancements and updates to ensure that certified farms continue to meet the highest sustainability standards [54]. The standard, which is updated biannually, incorporates the latest research and technological advancements to ensure that certified farms are at the forefront of sustainable agriculture. Furthermore, v. 16 places increased emphasis on holistic farm management and the integration of sustainable practices across the entire farm system.

3.1.4. Wineries for Climate Protection—WfCP (Spain)

The Wineries for Climate Protection (WfCP) standard is an initiative that aims to address the environmental challenges the wine industry faces [56]. Developed by the Spanish Wine Federation (FEV) in 2011 and effective since 2015, WfCP is the first and only certification standard that specifically provides a framework for wineries to assess, mitigate, and manage their environmental impact. Based on the WfCP standard, wineries can contribute to climate change mitigation, reduce resource consumption, and enhance overall sustainability performance [57]. Until mid-2022, approximately 45 wineries across Spain had obtained the WfCP certification [58].

At the heart of the WfCP standard is the commitment to reducing GHG emissions. Wineries are encouraged to measure and monitor their carbon footprint, establish reduction targets, and implement strategies to minimize emissions [56,57]. This includes improvements in terms of energy efficiency, use of renewable energy sources, and adoption of sustainable transportation practices. Water conservation, through improved irrigation practices and water recycling, is another crucial aspect addressed by the WfCP standard that aims to minimize their water footprint.

The WfCP standard also places significant emphasis on waste management and circular economy principles. Wineries are encouraged to implement waste reduction measures, promote recycling and reuse, and minimize the generation of hazardous wastes. By embracing circularity, wineries can reduce waste, minimize environmental impact, and contribute to a more sustainable and resource-efficient wine industry [59].

The adoption of the WfCP standard offers several benefits to wineries. First, it demonstrates their commitment to environmental stewardship and sustainability, which enhances their reputation and brand values. Second, it provides wineries with a competitive advantage by meeting the growing consumer demand for sustainably produced wines. Third, certification according to the WfCP standard provides wineries with a credible recognition of their sustainability efforts, allowing them to differentiate themselves in the market and access new market opportunities.

3.1.5. Life ClimaMED Certification Tool (Mediterranean Region)

The LIFE-ClimaMED certification tool is being developed in the frame of the LIFE17 CCM/GR/000087 project “Innovative technologies for climate change mitigation by the Mediterranean agricultural sector”. This tool, using real-time measurements (Tier 3), is validated and demonstrated in 15 fields located in various regions of Greece, involving the cultivation of olive trees, grapes, vegetables, cereals, and pistachio trees [39].

The infrastructure needed for data collection at the field level involves the following: (i) a Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) device with an integrated internet connection card that is installed in fields and measures GHGs, (ii) a meteorological station, (iii) a solar panel as an alternative electricity source, (iv) a telemetry system for data transmission (LoRa), and (v) a web GIS-based platform for data collection, processing, and visualization (Figure 6). This platform also serves as the interface between producers and the Greek Ministry of Rural Development and Food (MINAGRIC) [60], which will issue the relevant emissions certificate based on data processing in each field. In addition to MINAGRIC, the proposed certification system requires the involvement of producers, equipment suppliers, the Greek Payment Authority of Common Agricultural Policy (C.A.P.) Aid Schemes (OPEKEPE), and external certifiers.

The LiDAR device operates in the near-infrared spectrum and measures three GHGs, namely, carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O) [61]. The device is safe for outdoor use due to its low optical power and does not pose any health risk to humans, animals, or birds.

The measurement accuracy is 5 ppmv for CO₂ and 50 ppb for CH₄. For N₂O, detection is possible when its concentration exceeds the detection limit of the device, which is 3 ppmv, as in cases of emissions from specific agricultural activities (e.g., use of nitrogen fertilizers). Under normal conditions, the concentration of N₂O in the atmosphere is around 337 ppb, which is well below the device’s detection threshold. However, when increased emissions occur due to agricultural activities, N₂O concentrations will surpass this threshold and will be recorded.

The LoRa telemetry system is a network that collects and manages real-time data from agricultural operations for monitoring farm activities, GHG emissions, and climatic parameters. It consists of IoT devices and sensors that monitor various parameters, such as temperature and humidity; the recorded values are transmitted via the LoRaWAN protocol that is suitable for rural areas and allows long-range communication with low energy consumption. The telemetry system also includes various interfaces and an electronic environment where users can view maps, charts, and real-time data. The system is user-friendly, requires minimal maintenance, and offers scalability and interoperability. It also supports WiFi and Ethernet connections for devices with higher data requirements, such as cameras or LIDAR systems.

The “Center for Monitoring and Management of Greenhouse Gases (CMM)” is the operational hub developed for MINAGRIC to monitor and manage GHG emissions [62]. The platform collects, processes, and evaluates records from LIDAR devices and meteorological stations installed on participating fields, providing a comprehensive and visualized real-time view of the emissions of all three GHGs. In addition to individual records per field, the platform enables MINAGRIC to monitor the overall evolution of CO₂, N₂O, and CH₄ emissions for all participating fields.

Finally, producers receive via the platform a statement of their emissions for each gas (CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O) per cultivated hectare and per kilogram of produced product. The objective of MINAGRIC is to engage as many producers as possible in this system, thereby collecting the maximum amount of data from the country’s cultivated land. This will allow the authorities to gain insight into emissions from the agricultural sector and to encourage and support producers in reducing these emissions. More details about all aspects of the Life ClimaMED certification tool and the responsibilities/duties of all involved parties can be found in a recent publication [39].

3.2. Non-EU Countries

So far, very few initiatives have been taken in non-EU countries for the development of low-carbon certification schemes in agriculture. Such a system, based on the Framework Act on Low Carbon, Green Growth, was launched in 2014 by the Republic of Korea (ROK) [63], aiming to achieve the GHG reduction target in the agricultural sector. The ROK has introduced the Low-Carbon Agricultural and Livestock Product Certification System to gain various benefits, such as generating new income for farmers and enhancing their competitiveness by introducing low-carbon farming techniques. This system refers to a national certification approach applied to a limited number of agricultural products, i.e., 51 categories, such as food crops, vegetables, fruits, and special crops, when their life cycle carbon emissions are lower compared to the national average emissions of the same product types.

The Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs of the ROK officially introduced this system in 2015, and until 2019, 830 agricultural products were certified as low-carbon ones [64]. According to the Foundation of Agricultural Technology, Commercialization and Transfer (FACT), which is a certification body, as of December 2020, 4700 farms (706 cases) and 5657 hectares obtained certification. In March 2022, FACT was rebranded as the Korea Agricultural Technology Promotion Agency (KOAT) to enhance the economic impact of agricultural R&D and promote industrial advancement [65]. Based on this system, low-carbon certification can only be applied to farms that have received the existing eco-friendly (organic, pesticide-free) or Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) certification [66]. These practices use the following:

• Technology to reduce consumption of fertilizer and pesticides, such as circulation farming, green manure cultivation, and eco-friendly control.
• Energy-saving technologies for agricultural machinery, such as direct planting and no tillage.
• Heating energy-saving technologies such as multi-layer insulation curtains, water curtain cultivation, geothermal heat pumps, etc. The key is to reduce carbon emissions by using agricultural water management technology.

Low-carbon certified agricultural products can be purchased through premium distribution networks such as department stores, large marts, and eco-friendly stores. As the public’s awareness of the environment increases, the impact of the low-carbon certification mark on consumers’ purchase of agri-food is expected to grow fast. Farmers are hoping for more drastic marketing and support for expanding sales channels to boost consumption of certified agricultural products.

However, recent data indicate that the number of certified farms in Korea is small, and this reveals that the low-carbon certification system is still in the initial stage, achieving a very small annual reduction of almost 70,000 metric tons of CO₂eq, far away from the 2030 target that aims to reduce GHG emissions in agriculture, forestry, and livestock industries by 7.9% (about 1.9 million metric tons of CO₂eq) compared to 2012 values [64].

Another initiative was taken very recently, in 2022, in the United States, where the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) launched the Partnerships for Climate-Smart Commodities program [67]. Its main objective is to expand markets, leverage GHG emissions reduction for climate-smart commodities, and position American producers as global leaders in climate-smart agricultural production.

The anticipated benefits of the selected projects are as follows:

• Provide technical and financial assistance to producers to implement climate-smart production practices on a voluntary basis on working lands.
• Pilot innovative and cost-effective methods for quantification, monitoring, reporting, and verification of GHG benefits.
• Develop markets and promote the resulting climate-smart commodities.

However, it is still too early to assess the efficiency of these partnerships and the degree to which they will meet the targets set. In fact, it is not clear whether similar initiatives are taken in other major non-EU countries. In a couple of cases, attempts were made for the development of a monitoring, reporting, and verification system for low-carbon agriculture [68]. However, these initiatives are not supervised by state authorities, whereas their successful implementation requires from the governance side the establishment of economic incentives so that farmers are willing to share private, farm-level data for smooth information transfer and development of such cost-effective, low-carbon certification schemes. In China, most efforts focus on promoting a low-carbon economy without paying any specific attention to agriculture [69].

3.3. Comparison of Existing European Low-Carbon Certification Systems

The European low-carbon certification systems are strongly related to the EU’s common agricultural policy [70]. Launched in 1962, CAP is a partnership between agriculture and society and between Europe and its farmers. It aims to support farmers and improve agricultural productivity, ensuring a stable supply of affordable food; safeguard European Union farmers to make a reasonable living; help tackle climate change and the sustainable management of natural resources; maintain rural areas and landscapes across the EU; and keep the rural economy alive by promoting jobs in farming, agri-food industries, and associated sectors.

CAP is managed and funded from the resources of the EU’s budget. The CAP 2023-27 entered into force on 1 January 2023, supports farmers and rural stakeholders across the 27 EU countries, based on its legal framework and the choices detailed in the approved strategic plans [71]. The design and implementation of eco-schemes are key factors in determining whether the new CAP will lead to a more efficient environmental performance and meet the targets of the Green Deal [72,73]. In this context, low-carbon certification systems in agriculture are not only more numerous but also more advanced in the European Union (EU) compared to other regions. This is mainly due to recently introduced climate- and agricultural-based strategies/frameworks such as the Farm to Fork strategy (a core part of the Green Deal) and the Carbon Removal and Carbon Farming (CRCF) framework [74,75]. These initiatives establish quality standards for voluntary GHG certification schemes and actively support their development. Furthermore, substantial financial incentives through eco-schemes and direct payments have encouraged their widespread adoption. The EU’s robust infrastructure for monitoring, reporting, verification, and certification (MRV-C) improves the credibility of these systems, although the resulting administrative complexity may present challenges for some farmers and producers [20].

Within this framework, the European-based low-carbon certifications, namely, Solagro, Label bas carbone/LCL, LEAF Marque Standard, and Wineries for Climate Protection (WfCP), are all initiatives that aim to promote sustainable practices within the agricultural sector and have several similarities and differences (

Table 1. Main characteristics of the existing low-carbon certification systems for agricultural production in Europe.

Standard Name/ Certification Scheme	Solagro	Label Bas Carbone (LCL)	Leaf Marque Standard (LEAF)	Wineries for Climate Protection (WfCP)
Founder/Maintenance	Solagro, a private non-profit organization	French Ministry for the Ecological Transition (MTES) and the Institute for Climate Economics (I4CE)/MTES	LEAF (Linking Environment and Farming), a non-profit organization/private standard	Federación Española del Vino (FEV)/Spanish Wine Federation (private-public body)
Certification/ Monitoring period	-	5-year auditing	1-year verification cycle	-
Country of Coverage	France/EU	France	Selected countries *	Spain
Year of Creation	2013	2018	2003, v16 (2023)	2011, launched in 2015
Scope	Farm/product (low carbon)	Farm/orchard (low carbon)	Farm businesses /product	Wineries (low carbon)
Main objectives	✓ Estimation of the GHG emissions from farming practices and proposal for climate change mitigation actions at the farm level. ✓ Assess the impact of agriculture on GHG emissions and carbon sequestration. ✓ Mitigation actions are evaluated according to their GHG profile, feasibility, and cost.	✓ Contribution in achieving the objectives of reducing GHG emissions in France by 2050. ✓ LCL has established 11 low-carbon methods/practices for four sectors, including agriculture, forestry, buildings, and transportation, while they are still under development.	✓ LEAF provides a framework for assessing and recognizing environmentally responsible and socially sustainable farming practices. The LEAF Marque Standard sets out a checklist of criteria and requirements that farmers must meet to obtain the LEAF Marque certification.	✓ Contribution in achieving reduction in GHG emission, renewable energies and energy efficiency, water management, and waste reduction. ✓ The winery must design a plan to improve each dimension every two years and reduce the environmental indicators. ✓ A new version of the standard (under development) will contain requirements on social, economic, and biodiversity aspects.
Environmental Factors assessed	✓ Energy, Climate change, Air quality, Nutrients, Pesticides, Water, Soil, Biodiversity, Animal welfare, Occupational health and safety, and Economy/Cost	✓ (10 total): Reduced energy consumption in farms, Soil carbon storage, Carbon storage in aboveground biomass, Organic nitrogen fertilization and manure management, Mineral fertilization, Organic and mineral nitrogen fertilization, Improved protein autonomy, Optimization of animal feed, Livestock management, and Optimization of technical route	✓ Environmental: Soil, Water, Biodiversity, Forest, Input, Waste, Energy, Climate, and Animals ✓ Social: Human Rights and Local Communities ✓ Management and Ethics: Economic Viability, Sustainability, Management, Supply Chain Responsibilities, and Ethics ✓ Quality: Product/service quality management and food/feed management systems	✓ WfCP provides guarantees regarding impacts on climate change, energy consumption, water, and waste management. ✓ The final objective is to reach a 30% emission reduction by 2030 (set by the EU in the Paris Agreements).
Farming systems /Orchards	✓ Suitable for arable lands, permanent crops, grasslands, and animals. ✓ Main farming systems: dairy milk, cereals, and fodder	✓ Eligible surfaces are arable land, viticulture, permanent, and grassland. ✓ The concerned orchards are dried fruit (almond, chestnut, hazel, and walnut), pome fruit (apple, pear, quince, and fig), and stone fruit (apricot, cherry, peach, nectarine, and plum). Berry crops (raspberries, blueberries, and gooseberries) and olive trees are excluded	✓ Bananas, Cereals, Cocoa, Coconut (Fresh), Coffee, Cotton & fibers, Flowers, Fruits, Honey, Nuts, Other products, Palm oil, Plants, Rice, Soy, Spices, Sugar, Tea, and Vegetables	✓ Main farming systems: Wineries ✓ 38 wineries have received the WfCP certification (Reference year, 2022)
Tool/Software usage	https://solagro.org/carbon-calculator	https://cap2er.eu/
References	[47]	[39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50]	[53,54]	[56,57,58,59]

* Europe: France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, and the United Kingdom; North America: the United States of America; South America: Argentina, Chile, Peru; Central America and the Caribbean: Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and St. Lucia; Africa: Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Morocco, Senegal, and South Africa; Asia: Bahrain, Israel, Jordan, and Thailand; New Zealand: Australia and Oceania.

). In terms of similarities, they all emphasize environmental stewardship and encourage sustainable farming practices. They address important aspects such as resource management, reduction in GHG emissions, and biodiversity conservation. Moreover, they all provide recognizable certification or labeling systems that allow consumers to identify agricultural products or farms that meet certain sustainability standards and contribute to raising awareness towards sustainable agriculture.

Regarding differences, the Solagro certification, the oldest among the systems compared, is an initiative that provides expertise and support for sustainable agriculture and renewable energy solutions. It focuses on promoting agroecology, energy efficiency, and sustainable land use practices. Moreover, the newest LCL is an official certification scheme managed by the French Ministry for Ecological Transition that primarily evaluates and certifies emission reductions in various sectors, including agriculture. The LEAF Marque Standard emphasizes Integrated Farm Management (IFM) principles and takes into account aspects such as biodiversity, soil health, water management, and energy efficiency. The WfCP standard provides wineries with a structured approach to assess, mitigate, and manage their environmental impact, focusing on key areas such as GHG emissions, water conservation, waste management, and biodiversity preservation.

3.4. Key Issues and Challenges

The implementation of an on-site monitoring assessment along with a carbon footprint study is essential in order to detect emission hot spots, assess emission variability and dynamics, and identify suitable (economic and technical) approaches for their reduction.

Prior to the implementation of a low-carbon product certification system in agriculture, the selection of the functional unit should be specified for calculating the carbon footprint. Likewise, the system boundaries need to be identified in order to define emission hot spots at the farm level. Furthermore, the identification of “fair” baselines upon which to reward additional reductions is crucial. In this sense, reliable and feasible carbon reduction targets consistent with local conditions and the type of certified products should be set out to allow farmers to meet these requirements for certification [76,77,78].

Since it is highly probable that small farms cannot afford alone the cost of certification and, if needed, the maintenance of equipment, state support as well as the cooperation of all involved public and private entities, such as, for example, ministries, regional authorities, agricultural cooperatives, banks, and companies that produce and sell equipment, are required. These costs should be evaluated in the context of the long-term benefits and opportunities associated with sustainable farming and the recognition of environmental stewardship. Small farms may also apply via an agricultural organization or association to obtain a group certificate and avoid high certification fees that may be required at the individual level. Group certification may be a vital option that reduces the cost of participation but may also involve challenges related to compliance and enforcement, especially when groups consist of a large number of spatially dispersed farms. It is also underlined that certification requires periodic renewal, for example, every 2 or 4 years, a process that imposes additional significant recurring costs [39]. Finally, in order to increase the participation of smallholders and companies located in remote or lower-income regions in such certification systems, careful selection and use of key governance, sustainability, and social indicators to reliably assess all impacts are needed [35,79].

These challenges, based on the experience gained through the development of the LIFE-ClimaMED certification tool, can be effectively addressed through the integration of innovative technologies, tailored policy measures, and active stakeholder collaboration. The tool demonstrates that integrating advanced technologies in a format that is easily installable, adjustable, and autonomous can greatly improve the efficiency and applicability of carbon monitoring, reduce associated costs, and improve the accuracy of carbon footprint assessments. It also highlights the importance of adapting emission baselines and reduction targets to local agro-environmental conditions and specific crop systems, ensuring fairness and greater farmer participation. The tool supports group certification by offering centralized data management in real time and compliance tracking, which is particularly valuable for smallholder farms. Additionally, the digital interface streamlines the certification process, facilitates transparent reporting, and reduces the burden of periodic renewals. Overall, the LIFE-ClimaMED tool demonstrates how the integration of technology, supportive policies, and stakeholder cooperation enables a more accessible and scalable approach to climate-smart agricultural certification.

4. Conclusions

The growing concern over climate change and the need to mitigate GHG emissions have prompted the development of sustainable practices across various industries. In the agricultural sector, there is a growing demand for agricultural products that are produced with minimal GHG emissions. Consumers, retailers, and policymakers are increasingly seeking assurance that the agricultural products they consume or promote are contributing to a greener and more sustainable future.

To meet this demand, the development of a certification procedure for agricultural products with low carbon/GHG emissions has become imperative. In this context, the objective of this paper was to identify, present, and analyze the most globally important and operational low-carbon certification systems in agriculture, highlighting their role in reducing GHG emissions and supporting the transition to sustainable agricultural practices. So far, most efforts towards developing low-carbon certification schemes were made in Europe. The main European low-carbon certifications, namely, Solagro, Label bas Carbone/LCL, LEAF Marque Standard, and Wineries for Climate Protection (WfCP), are initiatives that aim to promote sustainable practices within the agricultural sector and are strongly related to the EU’s common agricultural policy (CAP) that supports farmers and rural stakeholders across the 27 EU countries. Moreover, the recently developed LIFE-ClimaMED certification tool using real-time measurements and an innovative Tier 3 methodology has been validated for various products in 15 fields located in various parts of Greece. Beyond the EU, only a single important initiative has been undertaken in 2014 in the Republic of Korea for the development of a low-carbon certification scheme in agriculture.

Consequently, the current analysis remains predominantly focused on the EU, where most advanced certification efforts have been concentrated. This presents a limitation, as major agricultural emitters such as the United States, China, and Russia, who bear significant responsibility in mitigating climate change through the reduction in CO₂ emissions in agriculture, have made limited progress in implementing comparable systems. Moreover, several other bottlenecks persist across regions, including divergent national priorities, heterogeneous agricultural practices and product types, limited market access and consumer demand, lack of quantitative data (baselines, carbon offsets/credits, and coverage), and variable administrative, monitoring, and implementation costs associated with certification. These factors do not easily enable a reliable direct comparison, harmonization, and scalability of low-carbon certification systems across various economic, environmental, and policy contexts. While this study addresses many of these issues, future review analyses should expand the scope to include newly developed low-carbon certification systems beyond Europe and examine their reliability, implementation challenges, and effectiveness in various agricultural and policy contexts.

Overall, the implementation of low-carbon certification schemes for the production of green agricultural products has noticeable benefits for farmers, citizens, and the environment. However, in today’s unstable political scene, where the rules of the game may change at the EU level and elsewhere, several challenges exist and several bottlenecks need to be overcome. Some of these challenges were recently highlighted by farmer protests across the EU due to their dissatisfaction as a result of falling prices, import competition, and bureaucratic burdens imposed from environmental regulations. Furthermore, other factors, including the war in Ukraine and inflation, give a higher importance to issues such as food security and import dependence and may prevent farmers from joining such important initiatives as the low-carbon certificates.

The findings of this study demonstrate that while low-carbon certification systems face several implementation challenges, they hold significant potential for guiding farmers and agricultural stakeholders toward more environmentally sound practices at the farm level. By evaluating these systems through a sustainability approach, this study not only contributes to environmental remediation but also strengthens the resilience and long-term sustainability of agricultural systems in the face of climate change.