Next Article in Journal
Construction of Cultural Heritage Knowledge Graph Based on Graph Attention Neural Network
Previous Article in Journal
An Audio-Based Motor-Fault Diagnosis System with SOM-LSTM
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Applied Sciences
Volume 14
Issue 18
10.3390/app14188232
applsci-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Analysis of the Laboratory and In-Competition Characteristics of Adolescent Motocross (MX) Riders: An In Situ Case Study

by
Ferenc Ihász
1,
Zsolt Katona
1,
Zoltán Alföldi
1,
Attila Szabo
1,
István Barthalos
2,
Robert Podstawski
3,
László Suszter
4,*,
Kevin J. Finn
5 and
László Kerner
6
1
Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, Széchenyi István University, 9026 Győr, Hungary
2
Serco Uni Győr, 9026 Győr, Hungary
3
Department of Physiotherapy, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland
4
Sports and Health Sciences Research Group, Eszterházy Károly Chatolic University, 3300 Eger, Hungary
5
Department of Nutrition, Kinesiology, and Health College of Health, Science and Technology University of Central Missouri, Warrensburg, MO 64093, USA
6
Kerner Motorsport Academy, 8415 Nagyesztergár, Hungary
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(18), 8232; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14188232
Submission received: 13 August 2024 / Revised: 9 September 2024 / Accepted: 10 September 2024 / Published: 12 September 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Applied Biosciences and Bioengineering)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Motocross is one of the most popular high-speed motorcycle races, which takes place on a naturally closed track with significant challenges. This study aimed to characterize anthropometric, circulatory, and lower and upper limb muscle properties based on laboratory and race-recorded characteristics. Male competitors (n = 3) aged 14 years (MX) were included in the study. All three boys have national and international experience. Metabolic characteristics (ventilation, oxygen consumption, and carbon dioxide production) and heart rate (HR) were measured in the laboratory while HR and speed were measured while racing. No significant difference was found between the three competitors in terms of HR during the race. In terms of number of sprints (No. sprint) and maximum speed (Speedmax), we found the most successful runner (highest finisher) to have the most sprints and maximum speed. Comparing the metabolic characteristics, it was found that racing was between the respiratory breakpoint (VT1) and the respiratory compensation point (RCP), but, in several cases, crossed the anaerobic threshold. While motocross riders are exposed to extreme conditions and high physical demands, in motorsport, victories depend not only on the athlete’s physical abilities but also on several factors such as driving technique, mental effort, equipment efficiency and resistance, race strategy, and team competence.

1. Introduction

Motocross attracts more and more participants, as a popular off-road sport, characterized by irregular, natural terrain of dirt and sand, with different levels and obstacles [1]. The number of participants in the sport has increased worldwide [1]. Many amateur and professional players start racing at an early age. Motocross races are held on a motocross track (distance between 1200 and 2500 m), with a duration of 15 to 30 min, depending on the event. Thus, in motocross, the movement of the riders is continuous and acyclic, requiring a constant isometric contraction of the arms and legs to control the motorcycle (weighing ~60–80 kg) due to constant and rapid changes in direction, jumps, turns, and braking.
Previous review studies on motorsport have highlighted the importance of anthropometric parameters, and metabolic and cardiorespiratory systems (anaerobic and aerobic capacity (VO2peak)) [2]. In addition to these, the quality of neuromuscular responses [3], kinesthetic perception [4], and human performance in a broader sense [5] have been investigated. Motorsport requires the ability to exert high upper limb forces [6], as well as the physiological adaptation to changes induced by physical work (largely isometric) during racing [7]. The isometric and/or eccentric muscle contractions are necessary to absorb the shocks caused by the traction and the changes in the handling of the motorcycle on rough terrain with sharp bends [7].
A relatively easy-to-follow indicator of rider performance is the heart rate pattern [8]. The average heart rate activity during a race is 90–100% of the maximum heart rate [8]. Salstin [9] recorded data from a 45 min race in which an elite rider had a heart rate of 120 bpm at the start, which increased to 180 bpm during the first minute of racing and then to 195 bpm the next minute. Thereafter, the heart rate varied between 190 bpm and 195 bpm throughout the experiment. Lehmann and colleagues [10] reported a heart rate of approximately 180–190 bpm after 6 min of riding. It was hypothesized that heart rate and blood lactate were similar to those of strenuous exercise at 70–90% of maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max). However, heart rate as a sole measure cannot differentiate between mental and physical stressors; therefore, the measure of strain in motorsports must account for the specific complexity of each performance setting [11,12]. Some researchers have suggested that the physical exertion of riding or driving at high speeds is one of the causes of elevated heart rate [11,13,14]. Other researchers have attributed the frequency of heart rate increases to increased sympathetic nervous system output and changes in hormone levels due to anxiety and other emotional responses [12].
Given the psychoemotional stress associated with highspeed motorcycle racing, additional catecholamine (i.e., adrenaline) release would be expected [15,16,17]. In addition to the duration of the competitions, other features such as the amount of special warm body-protector shielded clothing may increase core body temperature. A recent study reported that motocross induces increased plasma oxidative stress and damage [16]. Since significant psychoemotional stress management is required during races, additional catecholamine release is possible, and this may have a significant impact on the heart rate profile during races. This study aims to analyze the anthropometric, circulatory, and lower limb muscle strength properties measured in the laboratory. It also aims to analyze the characteristics of heart rate and velocity patterns recorded during competition on an individual basis as a potential determinant of performance.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Subjects

This study included (n = 3) 14-year-old male (MX) riders. All three boys have national and international experience. The competition consisted of two races, with the winner being the rider who achieved the best result based on the placings in the two races. An important criterion for the selection was to include the overall winner of the race, the third-place finisher, and the rider who finished in the last third of the field. The description of the structure of the racetrack is presented in Figure 1.

2.2. Anthropometry and Body Composition

Anthropometric characteristics were measured by a qualified ISAK-accredited expert (level 1) according to the standardized procedures of the International Society of Kinanthropometry. According to standardized guidelines, body height (BH) was measured to the nearest 1 mm with a calibrated Soehlne Electronic Height Rod 5003 (Soehnle Professional, Backnang, Germany). Body mass (BM) (measured to the nearest 0.1 kg), BMI, body composition characteristics, and relative skeletal muscle mass (M%) were determined by bioelectrical impedance with an InBody720 body composition analyzer.

2.3. Examination of the Circulatory and Respiratory Systems

The circulatory and respiratory systems were examined at the Laboratory of Exercise Physiology of the Fehér Miklós Football Academy, using a Piston-type instrument (EN ISO 13485:2016, Budapest, Hungary) [18]. Ergo-spirometric tests were performed before the start of the competition season (early spring), following a progressive intensity protocol until voluntary exhaustion, on a treadmill (Pulsar 4.0, h/p/Cosmos Sports & Medical GmbH, Nußdorf, Germany). The riders arrived in the morning with minimal hydration, accompanied by their parents. As the three competitors had already taken part in such a test (in the previous year), the verbal preparation of the task and the mental support (the process of familiarization) took a shorter time. During the test, the athletes received verbal encouragement from the lab manager and the team coach. Parents were allowed to be present through the glass wall of the laboratory. During the test, the recorded circulatory and respiratory characteristics were used to create the initial profile of the Polar Team Pro (resting heart rate (HRrest), and maximum heart rate (MP)). The test protocol began with an initial speed of 5 km/h (walking) for one minute and continued at 8 km/h. Thereafter, treadmill speed was increased by 2 km/h every two minutes with a continuous inclination of 2°.
We calculated the ratios of minute ventilation/carbon dioxide and/oxygen production (VE/VCO2 and VE/O2). These ratios reflect the increase in ventilation in response to CO2 production [19]. Changes in VE/VCO2 slope may also be caused by increased chemoreceptors, peripheral ergoreceptor response, ventilatory dead space, and muscle mass involved in exercise [20]. The anaerobic threshold pulse (VT1) was determined after the completion of the exercise test for all subjects, using the V-slope method developed by Beaver et al. [21] and the respiration compensation point (RCP) [22].

2.4. Measurements during the Race (Polar Team Pro)

Heart rate (HR) and movement data were recorded using the Polar Team Pro® system (Polar Electro, Kempele, Finland). The system consists of a chest belt containing a sensor unit (Polar H7 Bluetooth 4.0 smart chest strap) with built-in ECG electrodes, a 10 Hz integrated GPS, and a 200 Hz micro-electromechanical system motion sensor. After the monitored session is over, all wearable sensors are attached to the dock for data synchronization to the iPad. From the iPad, the data are transferred wirelessly to the Polar Team Pro web service via the iPad’s built-in Wi-Fi or cellular connection. The Polar Team Pro system provides coaches with extensive data on the following areas: HR, location map, distance, velocity, acceleration, and power. The accompanying wearable sensors are equipped with Bluetooth technology that enables continuous data transfer with a range of up to 200 m [23].
During the races, we recorded the average (HRmean%), minimum (HRmin%), and maximum (HRmax%) heart rate about the hundredth percentile, the number of sprints (No. sprint), and the maximum speed (Speedmax), and calculated the training load (TL).
The heart rate (HR) and movement data measured during the competition are shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3. These figures illustrate the three riders’ heart rates and speed patterns at different stages.
In the first third of the race, all three riders worked at over 90% of their heart rate. This dropped steadily over the next third of the distance. The biggest decline was in the third period of the distance for rider (c), whose heart rate decreased to 90–80% (Figure 2).
There were several significant reductions in speed in the first three laps of the race, and then this pattern shows a balanced speed behavior in the following stages. In the middle part of the race, the speed decreased several times again, and then leveled off in the last part, reaching its maximum value (<100 km/h) (Figure 3).

2.5. Examination of the Strength of Both Bilateral Hamstring and Extensor and Abductor Muscles

Hip isometric strength was measured using the “ForceFrame®” Strength Testing System (VALD Performance Pty Ltd., Brisbane, Australia) following a tension protocol [24]. For the implementation, participants were asked to lie supine under the system. The outer side of both knees was placed on the padded load cell (100 Hz) at an angle of 60° (hip flexed at 60°). Participants were first asked to perform an isometric contraction of the hip adductor (AD) for 5 s, followed by a 5 s isometric contraction of the abductor muscle (ABD) for 5 s after a 5 s rest period. After 45 s of rest, the same procedure was repeated, and the Ipad automatically saved the results.
The strength of the hip (ABD) and (AD) was determined from the maximum slip (N) of three trials. These values were then converted to joint moments (N/m) based on the length of the right leg (distance between the anterior superior iliac crest and lateral ankle bone). The results of the isometric contraction tests were used to calculate two additional parameters.
The hip AD force/hip ABD force on the homolateral leg and the relative bilateral force asymmetry (force imbalance between the limbs) were calculated using the formula [(dominant leg muscle strength—non-dominant leg muscle strength)/dominant leg muscle strength] × 100.

3. Results

3.1. Laboratory Tests

The results measured in the laboratory for the three competitors are included in Table 1. There is no difference between the three riders’ anthropometric values, except for training age (TA), where rider (b) started riding three years previously. Also among the cardiorespiratory characteristics, rider (b) (VE/VO2 = 41.18; VE/VCO2 = 33.41) had lower oxygen and carbon dioxide utilization than his two counterparts (Table 1).

3.2. Field Tests

The heart rate characteristics as a percentage of the total race were not different for the three runners and the two races. The number of sprints (No. sprint = 183) was the smallest in the first race of rider (c), the maximum speed (Speedmax = 103.6 km/h) was the highest for rider (a), while the training load (TL) = 95.3 was the highest for rider (b) in the second race (Table 2).
In the first race, the three riders achieved different heart rate percentages in the first lap [(a) = 98%; (b) = 95%; (c) = 92%)]. Riders (a) and (b) raced at the same level they started at until nearly halfway through the distance, while rider (c) increased his heart rate (100%) steadily, similarly until halfway through the distance. From halfway through the distance, riders (a) and (b) steadily increased their heart rate until the end of the distance, maintaining the difference in favor of rider (a). Rider (c)’s heart rate dropped from 100% to 98%. In the second race, all three riders’ heart rates increased slightly (~2%) and then gradually decreased. The heart rate pattern of rider (b) showed the largest decrease (~3%). The speed pattern at the start of the first race was the same for riders (a) and (c), but lower for rider (b) (~12 km/h) and held until the second-to-last lap. Riders (a) and (c) had nearly the same speed until the end of the race. In the second race, the speed pattern of the three riders was almost unchanged. Rider (a) was faster than the two others by more than 10 km/h in laps 8–10 (Figure 4).
In summary, we can say that the heart rate and speed results recorded during the race show that motocross is a very physically demanding sport. The cardiovascular results measured in the laboratory, the maximum heart rate (MP), the ventilatory tidal pressure point (VT1), and the heart rate pattern during the race indicate anaerobic exercise in several cases. The heart rate at the start of the race was 60–80% of the maximum heart rate, indicating an increased emotional state. Motocross riders are subjected to extreme conditions and high physical demands, but, on the other hand, victories in motorsport depend not only on the athlete’s physical abilities but also on a range of factors such as driving technique, mental effort, equipment efficiency, and resistance, race strategy, and team competence. Following my direct plus has convinced us that motocross racing is extremely demanding for the riders. We believe that further direct studies are needed, which might clarify the criteria for sport performance.

4. Discussion

In the present study, anthropometric and cardiorespiratory characteristics, heart rate, and speed patterns of three adolescent elite athletes were investigated in the laboratory and during competition. The difference between the three competitors in terms of anthropometric characteristics was small. No differences were found in the above factors (Table 1), except for rider (b)’s age at training and the quality of oxygen–carbon dioxide consumption (VE/VCO2). Since very few data are available on the motocross activity of adolescent children, we can only assume that the much shorter training time affects the quality of the race routine [8]. As for the time spent in the average pulse ranges (HRmean%) measured during the race, we found no significant difference between the three racers. This is also true for the percentages of maximum (HRmin%) and minimum (HRmean%) values. Regarding the number of sprints (No. sprint) and maximum speed (Speedmax), we found balanced results in favor of the most efficient rider (Table 2). There is a debate between the physiological and psychological demands of different types of speed motocross [25]. The results of the present study show that physiological demands are significant in motocross. However, such prolonged, exceptionally high heart rates have been reported in most studies of physiological responses during motocrossing [10,26] and in studies of motorsport in general [12]. Heart rate (HR) showed values similar to those of previous studies, with HR reaching 90–100% of the maximum value. Thus, the present results emphasize the functional role of the cardiovascular system [27]. It is known that heart rate increases disproportionately with VO2 during hand and lower limb exercise. This finding may be consistent with a disproportionate increase in heart rate relative to VO2 during training and racing that requires a high isometric contraction of the forearm muscles in particular [28]. No difference was found in the muscle strength of the lower and upper limbs of the three riders tested. Bach and colleagues reported significantly higher muscle strength in the right hand than in the left hand, recognizing that hypertrophic forearms appear to be a common feature of motorcyclists and noting that more specific use of the clutch lever in off-road riding has been shown to be left dominant [2,29]. It may follow that the HR results obtained in our study can be interpreted similarly and suggest that motocross-specific upper (lower) limb isometric contractions stimulate the metaboreflex and explain, at least in part, the increased HR. On the other hand, high HR values may also be due to psychological effects [12].
Before the start of the race (sitting on the bike behind the start line), the three riders’ heart rate percentages were between 65 and 80% of the maximum. In the absence of striated muscle activity, this could be interpreted as an increase in heart rate due to emotional impact, ranging from 123 to 165 bpm (Figure 2). In our opinion, the elevated pre-race heart rate data can be attributed to the stress experienced during motocross races, as previously reported by other studies [3,7]. Kontinen et al. reported similarly high heart rate values, but, in their work, respiratory responses and blood lactate concentrations suggested that motocross races require a predominantly aerobic metabolism [27,30]. However, when the metabolic characteristics measured in our laboratory are compared with heart rate patterns and paralleled with heart rates recorded during the race, it can be said that racing took place between the respiratory breakpoint (VT) and the respiratory compensation point (RCP) [8]. It should be noted that there were several instances of heart rates falling into the anaerobic range, although the cumulative time of these was a few minutes. It is important to note that the stay in the anaerobic range was more pronounced in the last leg of the first race (Figure 4). However, it must be accepted that the heart rate pattern measured under laboratory conditions—i.e., the rate of linear increase—is below the values recorded during the race (Figure 2). The differences in heart rate and speed measured during the two races did not support the ranking within the race (Figure 2). It can be considered as a fact that, in the second race, the runners had worse results for both characteristics, regardless of the ranking. All in all, the results per lap for the three characteristics studied often differ across the board, mainly at the expense of age-appropriate concentration and retention. Thus, it can be said that the relative similarity of physiological characteristics did not have a significant effect on the final ranking in the race. This implies that riding technique, tactical maturity, spatial orientation, and several other elements, together with physiological characteristics, determine the final ranking. It seems that a more comprehensive, multi-system approach is needed to describe the performance of riders in competition [31].

5. Limitations

The strengths of the research are the relatively young MX riders, who are already achieving spectacular success at major sporting events, and the ability to measure heart rate variations in a competitive situation. The present study has some limitations and weaknesses like other case studies such as selection bias and the lack of statistical significance, and because of the non-representative, small sample size, it cannot be generalizable to other situations or populations. We recorded circulatory system characteristics under laboratory conditions, so we do not have VO2 data from the races. This limitation is understandable, as it would be “impossible” to expect these riders to wear a portable metabolic system while racing because Motocross Sport Federation rules do not allow competitors to wear anything that could cause injury if they fall during a race. A further limitation of our study is that the HR values measured in the laboratory differed to some extent from the HR data recorded in the races. This means that the respiratory breakpoint heart rate (VT) and respiratory compensation point (RCP) were slightly biased. Regardless of these, however, we were able to determine the aerobic–anaerobic zone with a relatively reasonable accuracy. It should also be noted as a limitation that the measured results of upper and lower limb muscle strength can only be related in a certain sense to the muscle activity required during motocross.

6. Future Research

It is important to emphasize that further work is needed to develop the individual profiles of the competitors. There is a need to show how best to prepare them by creating evidence-based methodologies and performance model-based training protocols. The technical background of motorsport is constantly evolving. However, fewer studies are presenting physiological, psychological, and biomechanical studies, especially for children and adolescent riders. During training and competitions, the use of devices that help to monitor circulatory, respiratory, and metabolic changes in the body is recommended. Future research is needed to improve cultural resistance to motorcycle racing and to invest in riders by providing evidence-based applications that can improve race performance.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, F.I., R.P., F.I. and R.P.; methodology, F.I. and R.P. software L.K. and L.S.; formal analysis, F.I.; investigation, I.B. and Z.K. resources, F.I. and R.P.; data curation, I.B. and Z.A.; writing—original draft preparation, L.K., A.S. and L.S.; writing—review and editing, R.P., F.I. and K.J.F.; visualization, L.S.; supervision, F.I., R.P., Z.K. and K.J.F.; project administration, I.B.; funding acquisition, Z.A. and I.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

This research was conducted in accordance with the guidelines and policies of the Research Ethics Committee (IV/3043–2/2022/EKA, 12 August 2022), Hungary, and the Declaration of Helsinki.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects and their parents involved in the study. Written informed consent has been obtained from the patients to publish this paper.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author without undue reservation.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank all participants. The authors would like to acknowledge the help from the KRNR Motorsport Academy, and the Hungarian Motorcycling Sport Federation (MAMS).

Conflicts of Interest

Author László Kerner was employed by the company Kerner Motorsport Academy. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

References

  1. MotoGPTM Reaches Record Global TV Coverage for 2015. MotoGP News. 2015. Available online: http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2015/03/26/motogp-reaches-record-global-tv-coverage-for-2015/172335 (accessed on 1 April 2017).
  2. Bach, C.W.; Brown, A.F.; Kinsey, A.W.; Ormsbee, M.J. Anthropometric characteristics and performance capabilities of highly trained motocross athletes compared with physically active men. J. Strength. Cond. Res. 2015, 29, 3392–3398. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Konttinen, T.; Häkkinen, K.; Kyröläinen, H. Cardiorespiratory and neuromuscular responses to motocross riding. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2008, 22, 202–209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. Szczepan, S.; Błacha, R.; Brożek, T.; Zatoń, K. Seasonal Changes in Force Production Accuracy as a Measure of Kinesthesia in Motorcyclists. Hum. Mov. 2020, 21, 15–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. D’Artibale, E.; Laursen, P.B.; Cronin, J.B. Human Performance in Motorcycle Road Racing: A Review of the Literature. Sports Med. 2018, 48, 1345–1356. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Baur, H.; Muller, S.; Hirschmuller, A.; Huber, G.; Mayer, F.; Klarica, A. Reactivity, stability, and strength performance capacity in motor sports commentary. Br. J. Sports Med. 2006, 40, 906–911. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  7. Ascensão, A.; Azevedo, V.; Ferreira, R.; Oliveira, E.; Marques, F.; Magalhães, J. Physiological, biochemical, and functional changes induced by a simulated 30 min off-road competitive motocross heat. J. Sports Med. Phys. Fitness 2008, 48, 311–319. [Google Scholar]
  8. Kerner, L.; Katona Zs, B.; Suszter, L.; Barthalos, I.; Ihász, F.; Podstawski, R. Anthropometric and physiological characteristics of young elite Hungarian motocross riders in motocross competitions. Phys. Act. Rev. 2024, 12, 47–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Salstin, B. Motocross-ajajan maksimaalinen hapenottokyky ja syketaajuus ajosuorituksen aikana. (Maximal oxygen uptake and heart rate during motocross riding). In Husqvarna 250-360 CR. Owner’s Manual, American Edition; Husqvarna: Värnamo, Sweden, 1975. (In Swedish) [Google Scholar]
  10. Lehmann Von, M.; Huber, G.; Schaub, F.; Keul, J. The significance of the catecholamine excretion for the evaluation of the physical and emotional stress in motocross drivers. Dtsch. Z. Sportmed. 1982, 33, 326–336. (In Germany) [Google Scholar]
  11. D’Artibale, E.; Tessitore, A.; Tiberi, M.; Capranica, L. Heart rate and blood lactate during official female motorcycling competitions. Int. J. Sports Med. 2007, 28, 662–666. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Schwaberger, G. Heart rate, metabolic and hormonal responses to maximal psycho-emotional and physical stress in motor car racing drivers. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 1987, 59, 579–604. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. D’Artibale, E.; Tessitore, A.; Capranica, L. Heart rate and blood lactate concentration of male road-race motorcyclists. J. Sports Sci. 2008, 26, 683–689. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. Filaire, E.; Filaire, M.; Le Scanff, C. Salivary cortisol, heart rate and blood lactate during a qualifying trial and an official race in motorcycling competition. J. Sports Med. Phys. Fitness 2007, 47, 413–417. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  15. Tsopanakis, C.; Tsopanakis, A. Stress hormonal factors, fatigue, and antioxidant responses to prolonged speed driving. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 1998, 60, 747–751. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  16. Ascensão, A.; Ferreira, R.; Marques, F.; Oliveira, E.; Azevedo, V.; Soares, J. Effect of off-road competitive motocross race on plasma oxidative stress and damage markers. Br. J. Sports Med. 2007, 41, 101–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  17. Del Rosso, S.; Abreu, L.; Webb, H.E.; Zouhal, H.; Boullosa, D.A. Stress markers during a rally car competition. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2016, 30, 605–614. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. ISO 13485:2016; Medical Devices—Quality Management Systems—Requirements for Regulatory Purposes. ISO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2016.
  19. Johnson, R.L., Jr. Gas exchange efficiency in congestive heart failure. Circulation 2000, 101, 2774–2776. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Ponikowski, P.; Chua, T.P.; Anker, S.D.; Francis, D.P.; Doehner, W.; Rauchhaus, M.; Coats, A.J.S. Peripheral chemoreceptor hypersensitivity: An ominous sign in patients with chronic heart failure. Circulation 2001, 104, 544–549. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Beaver, W.L.; Wasserman, K.; Whipp, B.J. A new method for detecting anaerobic threshold by gas exchange. J. Appl. Physiol. 1986, 60, 2020–2027. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Takano, N. Respiratory compensation point during incremental exercise as related to hypoxic chemosensitivity and lactate increase in men. Jpn. J. Physiol. 2000, 50, 449–455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. White Paper. Polar Team Pro System Polar Research Center.March 11, 2022, Page 1:(7). VAT FI02099112, Domicile: Kempele. Available online: www.polar.com/en/img/static/whitepapers/pdf/polar-team-pro-white-paper.pdf?srsltid=AfmBOoquWdQqXJoPTNutr6vyI0gK8ch4el6o5k580gC-ipixK7yJFo3K (accessed on 12 February 2023).
  24. Kadlec, D.; Jordan, M.J.; Snyder, L.; Alderson, J.; Nimphius, S. Test Re-test Reliability of Single and Multijoint Strength Properties in Female Australian Footballers. Sports Med. 2021, 7, 5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Jacobs, P.L.; Olvey, S.E. Metabolic and heart rate responses to open-wheel automobile road racing: A single-subject study. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2000, 14, 157–161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Collins, D.; Doherty, M.; Talbot, S. Performance enhancement in motocross: A case study of the sports science team in action. Sport Psychol. 1993, 7, 290–297. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Konttinen, T.; Häkkinen, K.; Kyröläinen, H. Cardiopulmonary loading in motocross riding. J. Sports Sci. 2007, 25, 995–999. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  28. Magalhaes, J.; Ferreira, R.; Marques, F.; Oliveira, E.; Soares, J.; Ascensão, A. Indoor climbing elicits plasma oxidative stress. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2007, 39, 955–963. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  29. Garcia-Mata, S. Chronic exertional compartment syndrome of the forearm in adolescents. J. Pediatr. Orthop. 2013, 33, 832–837. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Gobbi, A.W.; Francisco, R.A.; Tuy, B.; Kvitne, R.S. Physiological characteristics of top level off-road motorcyclists. Br. J. Sports Med. 2005, 39, 927–931. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Carlson, L.A.; Lawrence, M.A.; Kenefick, R.W. Hydration status and thermoregulatory responses in drivers during competitive racing. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2018, 32, 2061–2065. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Applsci 14 08232 g001
Figure 1. Description of the racetrack structure: Satellite image of the motocross competition. Legend: Piliscsév, Motorsport Centrum (Hungary). Classification: national and international FIM-registered track. Track length: 1990 m; track width: 6–8 m; level difference: 30 m; number of jumps: 14; number of bends: 13; track surface: earthy clay, sandy in places. Temperature: 18–20 °C; soil quality: ideal, watered. Number of competitors: ~160, in different categories.
Figure 1. Description of the racetrack structure: Satellite image of the motocross competition. Legend: Piliscsév, Motorsport Centrum (Hungary). Classification: national and international FIM-registered track. Track length: 1990 m; track width: 6–8 m; level difference: 30 m; number of jumps: 14; number of bends: 13; track surface: earthy clay, sandy in places. Temperature: 18–20 °C; soil quality: ideal, watered. Number of competitors: ~160, in different categories.
Applsci 14 08232 g001
Applsci 14 08232 g002
Figure 2. Heart rate (Hr%) patterns of three riders in the first race. Legend: The heart rate pattern of rider (a) is shown by the yellow line, rider (b) is burgundy, and rider (c) is gray.
Figure 2. Heart rate (Hr%) patterns of three riders in the first race. Legend: The heart rate pattern of rider (a) is shown by the yellow line, rider (b) is burgundy, and rider (c) is gray.
Applsci 14 08232 g002
Applsci 14 08232 g003
Figure 3. Heart rate (Hr%) and speed patterns of one rider. Legend: The red line marked with the number one (1) shows the heart rate pattern, and the blue line with the number two (2) shows the speed; the blue peak with the number three (3) is the speed in the straight section of the track; the blue trough marked with the number four (4) is the reduced speed during the corner; and number five (5) shows the number of completed laps.
Figure 3. Heart rate (Hr%) and speed patterns of one rider. Legend: The red line marked with the number one (1) shows the heart rate pattern, and the blue line with the number two (2) shows the speed; the blue peak with the number three (3) is the speed in the straight section of the track; the blue trough marked with the number four (4) is the reduced speed during the corner; and number five (5) shows the number of completed laps.
Applsci 14 08232 g003
Applsci 14 08232 g004
Figure 4. The differences between the heart rate (%) and speed patterns of the three riders tested in the first and second race. Legend: Blue solid line showing rider (a)’s heart rate pattern, orange solid line showing rider (b)’s heart rate pattern, and gray line showing rider (c)’s heart rate pattern. The bottom two graphs show the speed pattern of the same riders.
Figure 4. The differences between the heart rate (%) and speed patterns of the three riders tested in the first and second race. Legend: Blue solid line showing rider (a)’s heart rate pattern, orange solid line showing rider (b)’s heart rate pattern, and gray line showing rider (c)’s heart rate pattern. The bottom two graphs show the speed pattern of the same riders.
Applsci 14 08232 g004
Table 1. Anthropometric, cardiorespiratory, and lower limb muscle strength data of the three motocross riders.
Table 1. Anthropometric, cardiorespiratory, and lower limb muscle strength data of the three motocross riders.
Ridersabc
Ranking(1; 1)(13; 14)(7; 2)
Age (year)14.0313.8214.42
TA (year)11310
BH (cm)163.21164.83165.42
BM (kg)54.6256.8157.3
BMI22.021.021.7
M%43.6542.7641.57
BSA1.721.761.78
HRrest (beat × min−1)676973
MP (beat × min−1)197200198
VE/VO235.9641.1833.68
VE/VCO228.6333.4128.38
VT1 (beat × min−1)173178177
RCP (beat × min−1)183186184
W/kg4.795.044.91
L Max Force (N)278.3269.4281.3
R Max Force (N)276.9268.4280.6
Abbreviation: Ranking = places in the two races; TA = training age (year); BH = body height (cm); BW = body weight (kg); M% = percentage muscle mass; BSA = body surface area (cm−2); MP = maximal pulse (beat × min−1); VE/VO2 = oxygen utilization; VE/VCO2 = carbon dioxide utilization; VT1 = respiratory threshold pulse rate (beat × min−1); RCP = respiration compensation point (beat × min−1); W/kg = relative performance; L Max Force (N) = Left leg isometric strength; R Max Force (N) = Right leg isometric strength.
Table 2. Locomotor and mechanical characteristics recorded during the two races.
Table 2. Locomotor and mechanical characteristics recorded during the two races.
Ridersabc
Ranking(1; 1)(13; 14)(7; 2)
HRmean%94.31; 93.7294.511; 90.3297.61; 95.22
HRmin%97.31; 92.0294.31; 88.02921; 92.32
HRmax%1021; 96.8299.81; 94.22100.31; 98.52
No. sprint2181; 21322331; 19421831; 1972
Speedmax91.31; 103.6280.31; 90.22901; 91.32
TL891; 942931; 95.32871; 93.62
Abbreviation: Ranking = places in the two races; HRmean% = relative average pulse; HRmin% = relative minimum pulse; HRmax% = relative maximum pulse; No. sprint = number of sprints; Speedmax = highest speed during a race; TL = training load, subscript numbers 1 = first race, subscript numbers 2 = second race.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Ihász, F.; Katona, Z.; Alföldi, Z.; Szabo, A.; Barthalos, I.; Podstawski, R.; Suszter, L.; Finn, K.J.; Kerner, L. Analysis of the Laboratory and In-Competition Characteristics of Adolescent Motocross (MX) Riders: An In Situ Case Study. Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 8232. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14188232

AMA Style

Ihász F, Katona Z, Alföldi Z, Szabo A, Barthalos I, Podstawski R, Suszter L, Finn KJ, Kerner L. Analysis of the Laboratory and In-Competition Characteristics of Adolescent Motocross (MX) Riders: An In Situ Case Study. Applied Sciences. 2024; 14(18):8232. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14188232

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ihász, Ferenc, Zsolt Katona, Zoltán Alföldi, Attila Szabo, István Barthalos, Robert Podstawski, László Suszter, Kevin J. Finn, and László Kerner. 2024. "Analysis of the Laboratory and In-Competition Characteristics of Adolescent Motocross (MX) Riders: An In Situ Case Study" Applied Sciences 14, no. 18: 8232. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14188232

APA Style

Ihász, F., Katona, Z., Alföldi, Z., Szabo, A., Barthalos, I., Podstawski, R., Suszter, L., Finn, K. J., & Kerner, L. (2024). Analysis of the Laboratory and In-Competition Characteristics of Adolescent Motocross (MX) Riders: An In Situ Case Study. Applied Sciences, 14(18), 8232. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14188232

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop