Modern Multivariate Statistical Methods for Evaluating the Impact of WhatsApp on Academic Performance: Methodology and Case Study in India
Abstract
:1. Symbology, Introduction, and Bibliographical Review
1.1. Abbreviations, Acronyms, Notations, and Symbols
1.2. Introduction
1.3. Literature Review on WhatsApp Usage
1.4. Objective, Contribution, and Description of Sections
2. Methodology
2.1. Academic Performance
2.2. Source of the Data, Data Collection, and Field Work
2.3. Statistical Methods
3. Case Study
3.1. Algorithm and Computer Settings
Algorithm 1 Method for dimension reduction. |
|
3.2. Exploratory Data Analysis
3.3. Confirmatory Analysis: Dimension Reduction, Results and Discussion
4. Conclusions, Limitations and Future Research
4.1. Conclusions
4.2. Limitations and Future Research
4.3. Future Research
- (i)
- Extend this study on the effect of WhatsApp on academic performance to students of other disciplines and other countries.
- (ii)
- Propose an information system for data warehouse compilation that allows different databases to coexist for acquiring necessary data from university records.
- (iii)
- State a data-monitoring plan to track the performance of students for further analysis and decision making.
- (iv)
- Formulate a model for predicting students at risk of dropout due to an excessive use of WhatsApp.
- (v)
- Schedule a plan for at-risk students who are identified by the predictive model to assist them in improving academic results.
- (vi)
- Consider other variables that may have an impact on students’ academic performance, for example, variables related to social media (such as the use of Facebook and Instagram) or not (as social economic status, residential area of students, daily study hour and accommodation).
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Acronyms | |
---|---|
Notations/Symbols | Definition |
DPCA | Disjoint principal component analysis. |
FA | Factor analysis. |
GPA | Grade point average. |
PCA | Principal component analysis. |
n | Number of individuals or entities. |
p | Number of original, observable or measurable variables. |
q | Number of latent variables in a multivariate study (). |
r | Number of principal components in a multivariate study (). |
Indices. | |
Original variable j in a multivariate study. | |
Observation of individual i on variable j. | |
k-th common factor in FA. | |
Score of individual i on k-th common factor in FA. | |
Loading of original variable j on k-th common factor in FA. | |
j-th specific factor in FA. | |
Coordination of individual i on l-th component in PCA. | |
Loading of variable j on l-th component in PCA. | |
l-th component in PCA. | |
Loading of j-th-specific factor in FA. | |
Error when approximating variable j. | |
Error when approximating observation . | |
Score matrix in PCA with elements . | |
Loading matrix in PCA with elements . | |
Error matrix with elements . | |
Matrix of entity scores on common factors with elements . | |
Identity matrix of order . | |
Factor matrix in FA with elements . | |
Data matrix with elements . | |
Transpose of matrix . | |
The Frobenius norm of matrix . | |
Correlation between variables X and Y. |
Variable Definition Stage | Content |
---|---|
Concept | Academic performance. |
Dimensions | Academic performance in each of the subjects approved by the student. |
Indicators | Grade obtained out of 10 points in each of the subjects approved by the student. |
Index: GPA | Weighted average of the grades of the subjects according to the credits of each one. |
Item | Question |
---|---|
I.1 | I frequently find myself utilizing WhatsApp for longer periods of time than I expect. |
I.2 | Without WhatsApp, I often find life to be tedious. |
I.3 | Because of my WhatsApp usage, I frequently neglect my schoolwork. |
I.4 | When someone stops me while I am on WhatsApp, I become upset. |
I.5 | It could be several days before I feel the need to utilize WhatsApp. |
I.6 | When I am on WhatsApp, time flies by and I do not notice it. |
I.7 | It is difficult for me to fall asleep after using WhatsApp. |
I.8 | I would be irritated if I had to limit the amount of time I spend on WhatsApp. |
I.9 | My family frequently complains about my WhatsApp obsession. |
I.10 | My school grades have suffered as a result of my use of WhatsApp. |
I.11 | While driving, I frequently use WhatsApp. |
I.12 | Because of my work with WhatsApp, I frequently cancel plans with pals. |
I.13 | When I have not used WhatsApp, I find myself worrying about what happened there. |
I.14 | Since I started using WhatsApp, I believe my utilization has increased dramatically. |
Variables | Male | Female | Total | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | % | n | % | N | % | |
Age group | ||||||
18–20 | 77 | 50.7 | 43 | 40.6 | 120 | 46.5 |
21–23 | 50 | 32.9 | 51 | 48.1 | 101 | 39.1 |
24–26 | 21 | 13.8 | 9 | 8.5 | 30 | 11.6 |
26+ | 4 | 2.6 | 3 | 2.8 | 7 | 2.7 |
GPA | ||||||
Less than 4 | 2 | 1.3 | 1 | 0.9 | 3 | 1.2 |
4 and above but below 6 | 13 | 8.6 | 7 | 6.6 | 20 | 7.8 |
6 and above but below 8 | 97 | 63.8 | 54 | 50.9 | 151 | 58.5 |
8 and above | 40 | 26.3 | 44 | 41.5 | 84 | 32.6 |
Program | ||||||
BBA | 69 | 45.4 | 40 | 37.7 | 109 | 42.2 |
MBA | 83 | 54.6 | 66 | 62.3 | 149 | 57.8 |
Academic year | ||||||
1st | 133 | 87.5 | 89 | 84 | 222 | 86 |
2nd | 16 | 10.5 | 13 | 12.3 | 29 | 11.2 |
3rd | 3 | 2 | 4 | 3.8 | 7 | 2.7 |
On/off campus | ||||||
On campus | 63 | 41.4 | 52 | 49.1 | 115 | 44.6 |
Off campus | 89 | 58.6 | 54 | 50.9 | 143 | 55.4 |
Item | FACT1 | FACT2 | FACT3 |
---|---|---|---|
I.1 | 0.03034481 | 0.77696482 | 0.01330276 |
I.2 | 0.05754937 | 0.78045361 | |
I.3 | 0.66457462 | 0.03210919 | 0.19216345 |
I.4 | 0.76241137 | 0.08598149 | |
I.5 | 0.04886396 | 0.78056599 | |
I.6 | 0.68613833 | 0.05302230 | |
I.7 | 0.66773043 | 0.05226233 | 0.05748970 |
I.8 | 0.75232506 | 0.06495718 | |
I.9 | 0.58525987 | 0.02516156 | 0.54438397 |
I.10 | 0.47527431 | 0.58734625 | |
I.11 | 0.69459116 | 0.29867599 | |
I.12 | 0.78418094 | 0.03884651 | 0.10346175 |
I.13 | 0.67026382 | ||
I.14 | 0.33133921 | 0.06890374 | |
% of variance | 30.56% | 17.28% | 8.51% |
GPA | Time Spent on | Hour You Sleep | App Is Disruptive to My Study | Do You Answer during Class on App | Assistance of App on Learning | FACT1 | FACT2 | FACT3 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
GPA | 1 | ||||||||
Time spent on WhatsApp | 0.198 * | 1 | |||||||
Hours you sleep | 1 | ||||||||
App is disruptive to my study | 0.048 | 1 | |||||||
Do you answer during class on app | 0.098 | 0.013 | 0.111 | 1 | |||||
Assistance of app on learning | 0.018 | 0.099 | 0.029 | 0.054 | 0.308 * | 1 | |||
FACT1 | 0.08 | 0.063 | 0.06 | 0.053 | 1 | ||||
FACT2 | 0.006 | 0.087 | 0.136 | 0.118 | 0.029 | 0.477 ** | 1 | ||
FACT3 | 0.024 | 0.037 | 0.016 | 0.036 | 0.104 | 1 |
Variables | p-Value | Result |
---|---|---|
Age group | 0.162 | Non-significant |
Program | 0.161 | Non-significant |
Academic year | 0.341 | Non-significant |
GPA | 0.014 | Significant |
How many academic groups you have joined? | <0.001 | Significant |
Are you connected with your teachers over WhatsApp? | 0.003 | Significant |
How long you have been using WhatsApp? | 0.008 | Significant |
How many hours do you normally spend using WhatsApp? | 0.735 | Non-significant |
Item | COMP1 | COMP2 | COMP3 |
---|---|---|---|
I.1 | 0.06120081 | 0.48800513 | |
I.2 | 0.06868628 | 0.49530998 | |
I.3 | 0.33181342 | ||
I.4 | 0.04209015 | 0.47475063 | |
I.5 | 0.05894249 | 0.50276602 | 0.02267637 |
I.6 | 0.31322646 | 0.00861019 | 0.26609010 |
I.7 | 0.32348943 | 0.05546726 | |
I.8 | 0.34970328 | 0.00663979 | 0.22692268 |
I.9 | 0.32268022 | ||
I.10 | 0.27221475 | ||
I.11 | 0.34920303 | ||
I.12 | 0.38151494 | 0.03585147 | |
I.13 | 0.30672033 | 0.22377153 | |
I.14 | 0.10651257 | 0.08893395 | 0.63960978 |
% of variance | 30.56% | 17.28% | 8.51% |
COMP1 | COMP2 | COMP3 | |
---|---|---|---|
I.1 | 0 | 0.49991922 | 0 |
I.2 | 0 | 0.50600674 | 0 |
I.3 | 0.38329163 | 0 | 0 |
I.4 | 0 | 0.48623616 | 0 |
I.5 | 0 | 0.50755527 | 0 |
I.6 | 0 | 0 | 0.53927580 |
I.7 | 0 | 0 | 0.55485563 |
I.8 | 0 | 0 | 0.60386256 |
I.9 | 0.39677193 | 0 | 0 |
I.10 | 0.38052728 | 0 | 0 |
I.11 | 0.45834493 | 0 | 0 |
I.12 | 0.45175363 | 0 | 0 |
I.13 | 0.36972576 | 0 | 0 |
I.14 | 0 | 0 | 0.19148591 |
% of variance | 22.67% | 17.22% | 15.06% |
Latent Dimension | Characterization | Grouped Items |
---|---|---|
FACT1/COMP1 | Addicted: High dependency on WhatsApp | I.3, I.9, I.10, I.11, I.12, I.13 |
FACT2/COMP2 | Socially isolated: Isolation due to the use of WhatsApp | I.1, I.2, I.4, I.5 |
FACT3/COMP3 | Time pass: Growing use of WhatsApp | I.6, I.7, I.8, I.14 |
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Sharma, P.; Singh, A.K.; Leiva, V.; Martin-Barreiro, C.; Cabezas, X. Modern Multivariate Statistical Methods for Evaluating the Impact of WhatsApp on Academic Performance: Methodology and Case Study in India. Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6141. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12126141
Sharma P, Singh AK, Leiva V, Martin-Barreiro C, Cabezas X. Modern Multivariate Statistical Methods for Evaluating the Impact of WhatsApp on Academic Performance: Methodology and Case Study in India. Applied Sciences. 2022; 12(12):6141. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12126141
Chicago/Turabian StyleSharma, Prayas, Ashish Kumar Singh, Víctor Leiva, Carlos Martin-Barreiro, and Xavier Cabezas. 2022. "Modern Multivariate Statistical Methods for Evaluating the Impact of WhatsApp on Academic Performance: Methodology and Case Study in India" Applied Sciences 12, no. 12: 6141. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12126141