In this section, we detail the results of research question 1, what are implicit and explicit university conceptions and responses to social justice? On average, the length of statements from presidents of HBCUs was longer than those from presidents at Ivy League institutions and PWIs. There were significantly fewer lexical choices. Consider, for example, the effect of two different approaches to describing the same person as a “protester” versus a “rioter” (
Hart 2013). In the letters of the HBCU presidents, the most frequently occurring words included university, anti-blackness/antiracist/anti-racism, Black, and racist/racism. The words that occurred most frequently in the letters written by presidents at Ivy League institutions were community, anti-blackness/antiracist/anti-racism, and racist/racism. For the letters written by presidents at PWIs, the most frequently occurring words included community, university, anti-blackness/antiracist/anti-racism, racist/racism, and Black. There were similarities in the terms that occurred most frequently in the letters.
Table 1 shows the most frequently occurring words in presidents’ statements by university type. This initial analysis led us to examine the presidential statements more carefully to determine the messages communicated to their campuses. A deeper dive into the data revealed some explanations for why the letters from presidents at HBCUs tended to be longer. The following discursive themes help to explain the first research questions.
4.1. Discourse Surrounding the Letters
4.1.1. Systemic Racism and Racial Inequities
Each statement issued by HBCU presidents spoke of systemic racism and racial inequities. Many referenced the criminal justice system and the unjust and unfair laws and policies. Several HBCU presidents specifically mentioned that George Floyd died at the hands of a white police officer whose oath was to “protect and serve” and spoke of Mr. Floyd’s cries of “I can’t breathe” falling on the “ears of the callous and cold-hearted officer”. Several also referenced the systemic inequities that permeate every system within the United States of America and stories of oppression. For example, one president wrote, “there are countless stories of oppression that lead to false accusations of wrongdoing; disproportionate rates of poverty and incarceration; health disparities stemming from socio-economic circumstance, anti-immigrant injustice, black and white middle-class flight from ‘urban areas’; police misconduct, glass ceilings in corporate America; senseless murder all around”.
All statements issued by presidents at Ivy League institutions acknowledged systemic racism and racial inequities. Four of seven presidents referred to George Floyd dying in the custody of Minneapolis police officers and, similarly to HBCU presidents, made the point that at times Black people are “in fear of the very systems and structures that are supposed to be in place to ensure safety and justice”. These presidents echoed the persistent systemic racism in this country. One president wrote “we have witnessed yet again how this nation’s long legacy of racism continues to damage and destroy the lives of Black people”. Black was not one of the frequently occurring words in the letters from presidents at Ivy League institutions. It should be noted that although all seven presidents acknowledged systemic racism and racial inequities, the word Black or African American was not a frequently occurring word or phrase in the letters. For example, one president stated “the tragic and senseless death of George Floyd is a vivid reminder of the inequalities and unacceptable indignities that so many of our citizens constantly endure”.
Eighty-eight percent of the statements issued by the presidents at PWIs acknowledged systemic racism/racial inequities within the country, and some used powerful language to do so. For example, the president of Adler University pledged “I promise the University will continue to engage on this issue, with your voices at every table, to dismantle the structural racism both inside Adler University and around our world”. Earlier in the letter, the president states “all these events further unmask the systemic racism that continues to violently oppress Black people in America and which we have seen on increasing display over the last few weeks”. Notably, five PWI statements did not include any mention of systemic racism.
4.1.2. Dehumanization of Black People/Direct Denouncement of the Attack on Black Men
Dehumanization is the view that certain people should be denied uniquely human rights. Thus, out-groups are denied the privileges, activities, or agency that are ordinarily ascribed to in-groups (
Markowitz and Slovic 2020). Presidents expressed frustration with Black people being treated as less than human. Of the 62 statements, all but four statements contained language that addressed the dehumanization of Black people. All four were written by presidents of PWIs. All the presidents at HBCUs and the Ivy League universities had sentences in their letters that expressed the dehumanization of Black people. Emerson College’s president noted “George Floyd was invisible. And it was his invisibility, a brutal white power structure, and Chauvin’s dehumanization of him that killed him”. The murder of George Floyd was described as inhumane and deplorable by presidents at HBCUs and Ivy League institutions. Phrases such as “senseless murder”, a “life cut short unnecessarily”, and “brutally murdered” were used to depict the dehumanization of George Floyd. In one president’s direct denouncement of the attack on Black men, he stated “the constant attack on the Black experience must end”. Another issued the same sentiment by writing “the amount of pain in the Black community is unfathomable, especially as these are occurring in the midst of a pandemic that is having such a disproportionate impact on communities of color”.
4.1.3. Strong Condemnation of the Murder of George Floyd
Condemnation of the Murder of George Floyd was expressed by articulating a range of emotions. Eighty-three percent (10/12) of letters written by HBCU presidents expressed strong condemnation with regard to the murder of George Floyd. Seventy-one percent (5/7) of letters written by Ivy League presidents expressed strong opposition to the killing of George Floyd. Eighty-eight (38/43) percent of letters written by presidents at PWIs expressed condemnation in their letters.
4.1.4. Personal Connection/Lived Experience
Sixty-seven percent (8/12) of letters written by HBCU presidents described a personal connection or a vested personal interest in what was happening around them. For example, one stated “it could have been either of my sons, my brothers, my nephews, or nieces, my friends or even one of my students who lay on the ground, pleading mercy on that horrific day”. Another wrote “I write when I am bothered. I am bothered tonight” and continued to use that personal pronoun throughout the letter. Many HBCU presidents used “we” throughout their statements and gave advice to their students as though they were their own children. For example, one president ended his statement with “now govern yourselves as the Kings and Queens you are”. Many of these letters expressed passion and commitment for the students. All the letters did not include this level of personal connection; however, it is noteworthy that most of the statements written by HBCU presidents contained this sentiment. None of the statements written by presidents at Ivy League institutions expressed a personal connection or linked the situation to their own lived experience.
Of the accounts written by presidents at PWIs, only two spoke of their lived experience. President Pelton of Emerson College began his letter by saying “today I write to you as a Black man and as a President of Emerson College”. He continues to say “we mourn George Floyd. But let’s not forget the other George Floyds of which he is but one”. President Pelton continues to give accounts of the other Black men, women, and children of others who have been killed or targeted simply for being Black, including Ahmaud Arbery, Christian Cooper, Trayvon Martin, Tamir Rice, Sandra Bland, Philando Castile, Eric Garner, Freddie Gray, Botham Jean, and Breonna Taylor. President Rochon of the University of Southern Indiana states “I remember calling across our home to my wife to phone our 22-year-old son. We needed to hear his voice at that very moment. I remember our 20-year old daughter looking me in the eyes and asking, ‘Baba, are we safe?’ as she sobbed in my arms. I remember wondering to myself, ‘what do I tell her…this time?’”. Although only two presidents at PWIs wrote letters that included their lived experience, others did acknowledge the pain being felt by those in the Black community. For example, one president at a PWI stated “I cannot understand this lived experience, as a white man, but I can witness and honor the pain and anger felt by many Black people in America”. The President of Michigan State University wrote “It is important, as Spartans, that we collectively understand and acknowledge the impact of racism and that the Black community is under attack in many ways right now… All of this is taking a heavy emotional toll on many of our friends, families, and fellow Spartans”.
4.1.5. Resist Violence/Protest Peacefully
Sixty-seven percent (8/12) of HBCU presidents had sentences in their letters that encouraged their students to protest peacefully and resist violence. However, this was not the central focus of any of the letters HBCU presidents wrote. As it relates to protesting, five of the HBCU presidents made comments that riots are the results of systemic oppression, and some made references to Dr. King, “A riot is the language of the unheard”. Dr. Dillard of Shaw University wrote “The rioting that occurred in Raleigh, around our state, and all over America is a symptom of an illness that has gone untreated for far too long. Racism and injustice are the diseases, and if we look only at the symptoms, nothing will ever change”. These university presidents were not condoning rioting. However, they recognized the frustration and said to America “listen and make a change as a country”. Additionally, they said “stop deflecting and deal with the underlying issue of systemic racism and oppression”. This same sentiment was reflected in many of the letters presidents wrote at PWIs.
Twenty-six percent of PWI presidents had similar views as presidents at HBCUs. Several quoted Dr. King as well and cautioned America to listen. Additionally, some cautioned against equating property loss with the loss of life. As an illustration, one president wrote “There are those who wish to downplay the institutionally sanctioned violence against Black people by condemning these acts of protest. We cannot fall victim to this false equivalency”. As Dr. King noted in his speech, Other American, “Certain conditions continue to exist in our society, which must be condemned as vigorously as we condemn riots. But in the final analysis, a riot is the language of the unheard”. Only one letter written by presidents at an Ivy League institution mentioned the protests. The president at Yale stated “Some of the protests have turned destructive, undermining the plea for justice all Americans must share”.
4.1.6. Strong Commitment to Social Justice versus Cursory Reflections
Letters were coded as either solid commitments to social justice or cursory reactions, dancing around the margins and using vague language. Ninety-two percent (11/12) of the HBCU’s letters suggest a solid commitment to social justice expressed in the language used throughout the letters. Recall presidents from the HBCUs used vocabulary related to social justice more frequently in their letters than presidents at the other institutions. They were bold in their use of anti-blackness, anti-racist, anti-racism, and Black and racist/racism narratives. The use of these words was absent from the one HBCU letter that did not appear to have a strong commitment to social justice. This university is in Florida, which could have impacted how bold the president felt they could be in the letter, given that it is a public university in the South.
Additionally, HBCUs tend to have firm commitments to social justice and community engagement in their historical roots. Forty-three percent (3/7) of the Ivy League Institutions seemed to strongly commit to social justice, as determined by the language in their statements. For example, the statement written by Brown University states explicitly “we must continue to demand equity and justice for all people, inclusive of all identities”. The statement also reminds readers of the resources available within the university that can be used to “interrogate the persistent and deeply disturbing issues related to race, racism and police violence in America”. It describes how the university will leverage resources to advance knowledge and effect change. Similarly, another wrote “We will address it directly in our educational programs, in our research and in our engagement and related activities…”. Seventy percent (30/43) of statements written by presidents at PWIs articulated a strong commitment to social justice work. For example, one president expressed that the university was exploring several actions to respond to the moment. Another informed the campus that they would soon be releasing a report from an investigation into university police arrests that illustrated how much work this university needed to do. Another president challenged the campus to “pursue your goals with an intentional effort to transform your community, the state, nation, and our globe into a more compassionate, equitable and understanding place”.
4.1.7. Call to Action
Letters were evaluated to ascertain if a call to action was present. A call to action was defined as the president’s plan for moving the university forward. Letters were coded as either having a call to action if the president specifically articulated action items for the campus moving forward in addressing systemic racism and social injustice. Some calls to action were more detailed than others; however, the call to action is the purpose of the mission/vision statements and the evaluation of the strategic plans. All of the letters by HBCU presidents had a call to action. Although some were more detailed than others, they each expressed a commitment to work that would foster a more just society. For example, several presidents encouraged their campuses to register to vote, go vote, and get educated. As part of an HBCU response, the university president invited the Atlanta Police Department, “to forge a cooperative partnership that would have as its goal the protection and safety of all our citizens.” An example of a vague action plan is one that was missing the articulation of any specific instructions: “the university stands ready and willing to help in the fight for social justice. We can and must do better”. Although the president articulated a willingness to help, there did not seem to be a clear path or even a suggestion of actions the campus could take immediately. Eighty-six percent (6/7) of the statements written by presidents at Ivy League institutions had a call to action present. Two were more specific than the other four. Ninety-five percent (41/43) of the statements written by presidents at PWIs contained a call-to-action. Twelve of the calls to action seemed more detailed, with specific steps or strategies. The following analysis of the mission statements and strategic plans ascertained universities’ stated commitments to social justice. In the following section, we detail the results of research question 2, to what degree are principles of social justice embedded in university intellectual roots and social responsibility?
4.1.8. Mission Statements Results
The mission statements for each university type were entered into Voyant Tools. This was carried out to identify the most frequently occurring words in the statements and determine if there were similarities and differences according to the university type. Next, we chose specific search terms related to aspects of university social responsibility to determine the frequency of the terms in the mission statements and if there were similarities across different institution types.
Table 2 shows some variability in the five most frequently occurring words by university type. As expected, the word university appeared the most frequently across all three types of institutions.
“Students”, as expected, was the next highest frequently occurring word for the HBCUs and Ivy League institutions. However, for PWIs, the word “research” was the second most frequently occurring word in the list. The word service did not appear as one of the top five most frequently occurring words for PWIs or Ivy League institutions; however, it was one of the five most frequently occurring words in the HBCU mission statements.
Based on the research question, a further analysis was conducted using Voyant. We entered specific search terms to determine their frequency in the mission statements.
Table 3 shows the variability. We examined how the terms were used within the mission statements to understand the data more clearly. Specifically, a deeper dive into the data revealed that it was the case that the frequent use of the word “community” in the mission statements of PWIs was because it was often used to reference the university community and not necessarily community engagement or service to the wider community in which the university exists. We then examined the mission statements more carefully to understand the findings and cross-check the mission statements with the university’s strategic plans.
4.1.9. Commitment to Community Engagement/Community Service
Seventy-seven percent (33/43) of the mission statements of PWIs included a sentence or sentences about community engagement or advancing the community in which the university was located. Additionally, many mission statements referenced contributing to their local communities and the state, national, and global communities. For example, Washington State University’s first sentence in the mission statement states “… scholarly inquiry that benefits society, and the sharing of expertise to positively impact the state and communities”. Seventy-five percent (9/12) of the HBCUs included community engagement in the mission statements. As an exemplar of this, one line in Hampton University’s mission statement reads “faculty, staff, and students provide leadership and service to the University as well as the global community”.
Similarly, 71% (5/7) of the mission statements of the Ivy League institutions referenced community engagement as an integral part of the university’s mission. The first phrase of Brown University’s mission statement demonstrates that serving the community is the purpose of the university’s existence. The beginning of the statement reads as follows: “the mission of Brown University is to serve the community, the nation, and the world by…”.
4.1.10. Commitment to Students from Diverse Backgrounds
All (12/12) HBCUs’ mission statements included language regarding the education of students from diverse backgrounds in their mission statements, and one specifically mentioned their “commitment to multiculturalism”, being proud to serve students from diverse national, cultural, and economic backgrounds. Florida A&M University states that “while the University continues its historic mission of educating African Americans, FAMU embraces persons of all races, ethnic origins, and nationalities as life-long members of the University community”. By contrast, there was no inclusion of educating students from diverse backgrounds within the mission statements of several PWIs or the Ivy League institutions. Specifically, 43% (3/7) of the Ivy League institutions and 26% (11/43) of the mission statements of PWIs included language regarding students from diverse backgrounds. An example from a PWI (Eastern Washington University), which expressed a commitment to students from diverse backgrounds, talked about “enhancing access to higher education in the Inland Northwest and beyond by recruiting and supporting traditional college-bound students, non-traditional students, and those from underserved populations”. As an Ivy League institution, Columbia University’s mission statement said “it seeks to attract a diverse and international faculty and student body, to support research and teaching on global issues and to create academic relationships with many countries and regions”.
4.1.11. Commitment to Social Justice
Seventy-five percent (9/12) of the mission statements of HBCUs included social justice principles. Morgan State University’s mission statement reads in part “the University gives significant priority to addressing societal problems, particularly those prevalent in urban communities”. Contained in the mission statement of Howard University is “…faculty who are, through their teaching, research and service, committed to the development of distinguished, historically aware, and compassionate graduates and the discovery of solutions to human problems in the United States and throughout the world”. Similarly, 67% (29/43) of PWIs included principles of social justice within their mission statements. For example, the mission statement of Emerson College reads “This mission is informed by core liberal arts values that seek to promote civic engagement, encourage ethical practices, foster respect for human diversity, and inspire students to create and communicate with clarity, integrity, and conviction”. Social justice was expressed somewhat similarly in the mission statement of Emory University, “…a commitment to use knowledge to improve human well-being; and a global perspective on the human condition”. Gongaza’s statement reads somewhat differently as social justice is explicitly stated: “The Gonzaga experience fosters a mature commitment to dignity of the human person, social justice, diversity, intercultural competence, global engagement, solidarity with the poor and vulnerable, and care for the planet”. In contrast, only 29% (2/7) of the Ivy League institutions’ mission statements presented a commitment to social justice.
4.1.12. Commitment to Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion
One hundred percent (12/12) of the mission statements of HBCUs reflected a commitment to diversity, equity, and inclusion. Some examples of how this commitment was articulated in the mission statements of the HBCUs are “responsive to needs of a diverse student population” and, from Virginia Union University’s statement, “Virginia Union University is nourished by its African American heritage and energized by commitment to excellence and diversity”. A commitment to diversity, equity, and inclusion was not as evident in the mission statements of the PWIs and Ivy League institutions: 60% (26/43) and 57% (4/7), respectively.
4.1.13. Strategic Plans Results
The strategic plans of the 60 universities were evaluated to further explore how social justice was embedded into the intellectual roots of the universities. The strategic plans of two universities (one HBCU and one Ivy League Institution) were not accessible. For these universities, we evaluated the vision statements, the core values of the institution and explored their university websites to further understand how university social responsibility was embedded in the intellectual roots of the universities.
4.1.14. Commitment to Community Engagement/Community Service
All PWIs and the Ivy League institutions demonstrated a commitment to community engagement in their strategic plans. Although one Ivy League strategic plan was not accessible, this commitment was evident in the vision and core values of the institution. Commitments were expressed at varying degrees, but were present for all 50 institutions. For example, The University of Virginia’s included “making UVA synonymous with service” as a goal, while Princeton University has a specific center devoted to civic engagement. Ninety-two percent (11/12) of the HBCUs expressed a commitment to community engagement.
This was expressed in strategic priorities such as producing research that would benefit the state, nation, and the world. The absence of this commitment was evident only in the one institution whose strategic plan was not available. Neither the vision nor the core values expressed a commitment to community engagement.
4.1.15. Commitment to Students from Diverse Backgrounds
All the Ivy League institutions demonstrated a commitment to students from diverse backgrounds and 91% (39/43) of PWIs were committed to students from diverse backgrounds based on goals written in their strategic plans. An exemplar of this is Duke University’s Diversity and Excellence Initiative, which included a sub-section for student support. To support students from diverse backgrounds, “anti-racism is woven into our curricula and university programs so that no Duke student will leave without a firm understanding of the societal problems of structural racism, social injustice, and inequality”. Eighty-three percent (10/12) of the HBCUs demonstrated commitment to students from diverse backgrounds within their strategic plans. Although one university did not have a specific initiative targeting students from diverse backgrounds, there were initiatives devoted to improving student success by improving graduation rates with a particular focus on sub-group performance. One example of a specific goal that demonstrates this principle of social justice included enhancing doctoral achievement in STEM fields and non-STEM disciplines for under-represented students of color. Another example of a goal demonstrating this commitment was to develop articulation agreements with community colleges. One metric used to determine if this was meeting the goal of increasing the number of diverse students was the African American transfers headcount. Another example was the inclusion of goals related to financial and good education to minimize student debt.
4.1.16. Commitment to Social Justice
The results suggest that all of the Ivy League institutions were deemed to have a responsibility for social justice, and many had centers allocated for this work. For example, Brown University has the Center for the Study of Slavery and Justice and the Center for the Study of Race and Ethnicity in America. Princeton houses the Field Center for Equality and Cultural Understanding. Each of these centers’ primary focus is related to advancing equality for marginalized communities and educating the university community about ways to advance and promote a just society. Ninety-five percent of PWIs have language in their strategic plans that suggest a commitment to social justice. For some institutions, social justice was woven into the fabric of each goal that that was written. As seen with the Ivy League institutions, PWIs also housed specific centers whose work focuses on social justice.
For example, Binghamton University includes The Institute for Justice and Well-Being, an interdisciplinary research institute that advances global health, progressive education, and well-being for marginalized populations. The institute’s goal is to develop and disseminate work that leads to the elimination of oppression and injustice. Similarly, Boston University houses the Center for Anti-racist Research, representing collaborative research and education involving interdisciplinary work to enhance racial equity and social justice. Ninety-two percent (11/12) of the HBCUs expressed a commitment to social justice. For the HBCUs, social justice was articulated as many times as access to education.
Additionally, as part of the goals for this commitment, there was one instance in which an HBCU had a goal to establish a Center for Social Justice. The centers devoted to social justice work were less evident for the HBCUs. Part of Spelman College’s commitment to social justice includes the Social Justice Fellows Program. The program provides opportunities for students to receive social justice advocacy training, social justice advocacy, and policy implementation experiences.
4.1.17. Commitment to Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI)
The results suggest that all Ivy League institutions and 95% (41/43) of PWIs had language in their strategic plans that demonstrated a commitment to diversity, equity, and inclusion. Ninety-two percent (11/12) of the HBCUs expressed a commitment to diversity, equity, and inclusion. Many of the universities had initiatives to recruit and retain diverse faculty, students, and staff. There were also goals of inclusive pedagogy to promote the engagement of all students. Other institutions highlighted the importance of creating university-wide research programs that advance diversity, equity, and inclusion as an integrated interdisciplinary approach. A reoccurring idea evident in these universities’ strategic plans included ensuring that all students had the right to inclusion and respect, and that everyone’s voices were heard. Many also had initiatives to recruit and support diverse faculty through cluster hires, professional development, and research support.
4.1.18. Similar Stories across Different Data Sources
Commitment to Social Justice: Presidents’ commitment to social justice in their letters ranged from 43 to 92%. However, the commitment to social justice seen in the mission statements ranged from 29 to 75%, and in the strategic plans it ranged from 92 to 100%. Acknowledgment of systemic racism/racial inequalities: In the presidents’ letters, across each type of university, the acknowledgment of systemic racism/racial inequalities was high, ranging from 88 to 100%. This acknowledgment is further supported by the high percentages of commitment to social justice and DEI in the mission statements and strategic plans.
4.1.19. Call to Action and Dehumanization of Black People
A high percentage of letters across university types expressed a call to action. Additionally, as mentioned earlier, 58 letters contained language that the murder of George Floyd was a result of the dehumanization of Black people, reflecting a sense of urgency to educate and eradicate racism. Across university types, there was a commitment to DEI and social justice reflected in their mission statements and the strategic plans (see
Table 4).