1. Introduction
Biochar is used as an amendment in agricultural soils to improve their physical characteristics [
1,
2,
3,
4] and to bolster important fertility properties [
5,
6,
7,
8]. Biochars’ ability to improve soil fertility is explained by the composition of organic compounds, which rebuilds soil organic carbon (SOC) levels [
9,
10,
11] and ash material, which are comprised of important plant macro- and micro-nutrients [
12,
13,
14].
For farmers and land managers to be able utilize biochar as a soil amendment, there must be a financial realization that crop or biomass yields are significantly improved. Several reviews [
15,
16,
17] have reported that, while the overall crop productivity improvement is around 10%, positive crop responses are better demonstrated by adding biochar to acidic, nutrient-poor soils in tropical regions, than in soils in temperate regions. Furthermore, the variability of biochar performance for improving crop yields was further demonstrated by Spokas et al. [
18], who reported that biochar caused positive yield increases in 50% of examined studies, but in the remaining 50%, there was no improvement or a decrease in crop yields. More recent examples where biochar was applied to field soils, that did not significantly improve corn yields, were reported [
19,
20]. In these studies, the test sites were in temperate climatic regions that may explain the lack of significant corn grain yield improvements.
The literature has shown that biochar chemical and physical properties can be quite variable because of feedstock choice differences [
12,
21], pyrolysis temperature selection [
22,
23], and post production variance in supply chain management and transportation [
24]. Thus, biochar variability can cast some confusion on biochar management decisions. Therefore, an alternate paradigm for biochar usage was introduced [
6,
25], whereby biochar properties would be matched to correct specific soil fertility deficiencies (i.e., low pH, poor plant nutrient levels, etc.). Novak et al. [
6] coined the technology “designer biochar”. Designer biochars are produced so they have specific chemical (i.e., pH, nutrient contents, etc.) and physical (i.e., pellets, particle size, etc.) properties through the choice of feedstock, pyrolytic temperatures, and biochar morphology [
25,
26]. This concept has been adjudicated for biochar production by others [
27,
28,
29], in order to adjust pH in a calcareous soil [
7] and raise winter wheat yields [
30].
In many other biochar evaluation studies, there is minimal concern of matching the right biochar to the specific soil problem. In contrast to this approach, our study is unique because designer biochars, used in this study, were selected to target specific soil physico-chemical deficiencies. The Goldsboro soil has deficiencies related to crop production that includes, poor water retention, low SOC, and nutrient contents. We based the designer biochar properties on prior laboratory results, using sandy soils that showed improvement in soil nutrient status [
6]; SOC contents [
31]; moisture retention [
32]; and rebalancing P contents in manure-based biochars [
26]. Here, designer biochars were created using commercially purchased biochars, produced from poultry litter (PL) and lodgepole pine chip (PC) feedstocks, and in blends using raw (unpyrolyzed) switchgrass compost (rSG). The biochars were mixed with a compost made from raw switchgrass, since other investigations that had used biochar, mixed with compost, found improved corn grain yields in Australia field plots [
33] and with improved wheat yields in China [
34].
The objectives of this three-year field experiment were to evaluate the effectiveness of these designer biochars by, 1) improving soil fertility characteristics (i.e., pH, soil Mehlich 1 P and K contents), and 2) increasing corn (Zea mays, L.) grain yields and biomass production.
4. Discussion
Pine chip biochar was used in this study to bolster the Goldsboro Ap horizon SOC content (0.91% SOC in 0–15 cm deep, data not presented). The 100% PL biochar was selected to bolster the Goldsboro’s soils macro (i.e., P and K), and micro (i.e, Cu and Zn) nutrient concentrations. Because PC biochar inherently contains lower quantities of plant nutrients relative to manure-based biochar [
14,
21], it was blended in a 2:1 (w/w) ratio with nutrient enriched PL biochar (
Table 1). This blending of biochars expands the soil fertility benefits by increasing both SOC and plant nutrient concentrations. Additionally, a switchgrass compost was included in the treatments because of anticipated improvement in biochar nutrient transformation processes [
33] and soil moisture retention [
32,
41].
In this study, the biochar applications rates are equivalent to a rate of 30,000 kg/ha (
Table 2). This application rate is within the range (10,000 to 50,000 kg/ha) used in other fields [
41,
42,
43], or in our prior laboratory experiments, involving biochar on sandy coastal plain soils [
2,
6].
For corn grain yields, the addition of designer biochar to the Goldsboro soil had little influence (
Table 5). Some variations between treatments in 2016 did occur, although there was some minor impacts of amendments between the individual treatments. It was noted that, in 2016, corn grain yields from the 100% PL treatment were > PC:rSG 2:1 and the PC:PL 2:1 blend was > PC: rSG 2:1 (
Table 5). In term of differences, the corn grain yields were > 2300 kg/ha between these two treatments.
When each treatment mean was compared between years of production, 5 out of 6 treatments experienced a significant corn grain yield decline, while only the PC:rSG 2:1 treatment remained similar. The decline in annual yields was evident by comparing the mean corn yield when averaged across all 6 treatments, which showed that mean corn yields were significantly reduced from 9637 in 2016 to 6777 kg/ha in 2018 (
Table 5). Corn grain yield differences between 2016 versus 2018 calculated a reduction of 2860 kg/ha or about −30% change.
The literature has reported mixed results, concerning the biochars’ impact on corn grain yields. In a three-year mesocosm experiment, Borchard et al. [
19] reported that a wood-based biochar, applied to a sandy Fluvisol and a silty Luvisol, failed to improve corn yields. In a larger field scale study conducted at several United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service locations across the USA, Laird et al. [
20] reported that a hardwood biochar applied to soils had no significant impact on corn grain yield increases at 5 of the 6 locations. Additionally, Güereña et al. [
44] reported that corn yields did not change when grown in two New York soils after biochar additions, even when applied at 30,000 kg/ha. It was speculated in this study that the maize-based biochar did not work in these soils, because there were no fertility constraints, and that the site was in a temperate climate with adequate precipitation totals. In a more recent biochar field study, Lamb et al. [
44] also reported no positive impact of a hardwood-derived biochar on corn yields grown in a sandy Ultisol in Georgia.
In contrast, there are numerous biochar studies, conducted under tropical conditions, that have reported maize grain yield increases from field trials, using different feedstocks [
45,
46]. In one study, Cornelissen et al. [
47] reported a positive corn yield increase in a sandy, African Ultisol treated with biochar produced from corn cob/softwood. Additionally, Agegnehu et al. [
33] reported a significant corn yield improvement in tropical Ferralsol treated with biochar produced from waste willow wood. These studies reported that biochar has a positive interaction with tropical soils to improve corn grain yields, which was further corroborated in a global-scale meta-analysis, that biochar boosts crop yields in tropical but not temperate zones [
17].
The contrasting effects of biochar improving crop yields in tropical soils but having mixed effects at raising yields in temperate soils is a concern. Biochars in tropical soils may be more effective at improving soil fertility conditions by raising low soil pH levels, sequestering phytotoxic aluminum concentrations, adding critical plant nutrients, or by enhancing nutrient turnover properties through stimulating soil microbial populations. Furthermore, biochars’ positive crop yield effects, in tropical soils, may be enhanced by mixing with compost [
33,
34]. On the other hand, biochars’ inconsistent performance at increasing crop yields in temperate regions may be related to the wrong biochar applied to an incorrect soil, the soil did not need biochar addition, or that the background soil fertility properties were of sufficient quality to mask biochar responses on soil properties. The ability to explain why crop yields vary with biochar applications under different climate condition or soil properties is problematic. It may be that strategies to improve biochars’ inconsistent performance in soils, under temperate climates, will require additional field investigations that specifically identify which soil properties were modified, and how strongly do these changes induce a positive crop yield increase. Otherwise, if biochars expenses are not recouped through associate higher crop grain or biomass yields, then their future use in agricultural as a soil amendment may be limited.
In our study, the effects of biochar and compost on the mean corn biomass (without corn grain weight) showed some significant differences in the first year of study, but were not apparent by the second and third year (
Table 6). Similar to the corn grain yields, biomass yields also experienced a significant decline in five of the six treatments (except 100% PC), when averaged across all treatments by year. This represents a 36% decline in mean corn biomass yields, when averaged across all treatments in just three years. This result is similar to corn biomass reductions (i.e., 36%) as reported [
48].
Large variations in annual rainfed corn grain yields in the Southeastern USA Coastal Plain region are not uncommon. Heckman and Kamprath [
49] observed large annual variations of between 20 to 50% in corn grain yields in a three-year corn production experiment when grown in a NC Dothan loamy sand. Davis et al. [
50] also reported that over 11 years, there were large annual mean variations of between 25 to 50% in a corn production experiment grown in a Tifton loamy sand in GA. They attributed the large variation to differences in monthly rainfall. Similar to this study, a decline in corn grain yields may be due to irregular precipitation timing during critical periods of corn pollination and seed filling stages (April to August) of production (
Table 4). Although there were near, or above annual precipitation totals (i.e., 1200-mm; [
51]), the irregular monthly precipitation totals in May and August 2017, and June and August 2018, probably impacted corn pollination and eventual seed filling. The decline in WUE, calculated in 2017 and 2018, suggests that the corn crop in all treatments was under moisture stress relative to 2016. While the amount of annual precipitation is important, a more vital component is the timing of that precipitation event during critical corn growth cycles to minimize water limited corn yields [
52].
Three important soil fertility characteristics were evaluated in this study including, soil pH, M1 P, and M1 K concentrations. Soils were also collected annually in 5-cm topsoil increments because the lack of mechanical mixing during conservation tillage operations was speculated to cause vertical stratification in nutrient concentrations. Additionally, K is reported to readily leach through sandy coastal plain soils after treatment with PL biochar [
53]. Sampling, using this procedure, would allow for the assessment of nutrient vertical stratification and for salt leaching, which may influence soil pH or reductions in nutrient concentrations biding in the topsoil.
Th pH range for soils in the control and with biochar treatment (except soil treated with 100% PL biochar) are well within the soil pH realm considered optimum (e.g., pH 5.5 to 6.5) for nutrient availability in Coastal Plain soils [
54]. In soil treated with 100% PL biochar, the increase in pH is not unexpected because 100% PL biochars typically have calcareous pH values, due to high concentrations of residual salts in their ash [
6,
11] and higher ash contents (
Table 1). This condition is also related to the Goldsboro soil having a limited ability to buffer salts contained with the 100% PL biochar [
6]. With the use of 100% PL biochar on sandy soils, it is important that resultant soil pH values do not exceed seven, since Fe, Mg, Zn, and other micronutrients become less available for plant uptake [
54,
55].
Three of the six treatments had a significant impact of time on soil pH (
Table 8). This condition is probably related to salts leaching out of the biochar as a function of time, and re-establishing the equilibrium with cations associated on clays and in the soil organic carbon pool. After displacement, the salts would promote alkaline conditions because of the higher dissolved Ca and Mg concentrations. Ranking the 2018 mean annual soil pH values grouped by topsoil depth were 100% PL > PC:PL 2:1 > PC:rSG 2:1 ≥ 100% PC > control > rSG treatment. This corroborates that the calcareous 100% PL and PC:PL 2:1 biochars were more effective at raising pH values in the Goldsboro soil than the other treatments.
Biochars, used as soil amendments, can contribute plant nutrients, such as P and K to bolster the overall soil fertility status [
14]. As shown in
Table 9, biochars had different capabilities of supplying P to soil. Expressing the relative effectiveness of these biochars and compost to supply M1 P to the Goldboro soil are: 100% PL > PC:PL 2:1 blend > 100% PC > PC:rSG = rSG compost.
According to the recommended levels for agronomic crop growth in Coastal Plain soils, M1 P concentrations presented in
Table 9 show that they rank in the high (67 to 112 kg/ha) to very high (+112 kg/ha; [
54]) range. Obviously, adding 30,000 kg/ha of 100% PL biochar to the Goldsboro soil grossly increased the M1 P concentrations to be much greater than the highest M1 P level recommended for Coastal Plain sandy soils. The depth stratification of M1 P to about 10 cm is reflective of the biochar being disked incorporated after application.
Potassium is an important plant nutrient because it is involved in many enzymatic functions, regulates electrochemical balances between plant organelles, and contributes to osmotic potential reactions of cells and tissues [
56]. Because K is involved in many plant physiological functions, for example, corn can have a high K nutrition requirement ranging from 3.2 to 28 kg/ha/d [
57]. The exact K nutrition requirement varies with geographic locations due to differences in planting rate, soil water availability, and production stage of growth [
57]. Typically, large fertilizer K
2O rates are applied annually for corn production. For example, K
2O application rates ranged from 167 to 224 kg/ha in a field corn experiment in a SC sandy Coastal Plain soil [
58]. However, the actual amount of K
2O applied each year depends on antecedent M1 K soil tests values. For example, soil test M1 potassium concentrations ranges for corn production in SC are low (<80 kg/ha); medium (80 to 175 kg/ha); sufficient (176 to 204 kg/ha); high (205 to 263 kg/ha) and excessive (>263 kg/ha; [
58]).
Here, the M1 K levels were measured in the Goldsboro control soil rank in the medium soil test category, thereby suggesting a need to maintain inorganic K
2O fertilizer additions. For the M1 K concentrations, it is interesting that there was no depth effect in the Goldsboro soil treated with 100% PL, PC:PL 2:1 biochar, or rSG compost (
Table 10). This may be explained by a better degree of physical mixing in these plots. In contrast, soil in plots treated with 100% PC biochar and PC:rSG 2:1 had significant depth effects with greater concentrations measured at the 0 to 5-cm depth. The may be linked to a relatively poorer degree of physical mixing or to the lack of K released from the cellulosic material. Overall, the application of 30,000 kg/ha of 100% PL biochar increased M1 K concentrations, so that it was in the excessive soil test range.