Assessing Coastal Erosion and Climate Change Adaptation Measures: A Novel Participatory Approach
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. State of the Art
3. Methodology
- Identification of different coastal erosion mitigation and climate change adaptation measures and their respective characterization;
- Identification of the positive and negative impacts, associated with the social, environmental and economic dimensions of implementing the measures;
- Identification of descriptor parameters that allow qualifying/quantifying the respective positive and negative impacts;
- Identification of direct and indirect economic costs of implementing the measures;
- Integration of stakeholders in participatory moments, for the discussion of the databases, allowing the adjustment and complementation of the created databases;
- Discussion on a proposal of the adaptation pathways and tipping points for the future of the Ovar Municipality coastal zone.
3.1. Databases
- Database #1—Mitigation and Adaptation Measures;
- Database #2—Impacts of Mitigation and Adaptation Measures;
- Database #3—Direct Costs of Mitigation and Adaptation Measures.
3.1.1. Database #1
- Group A, acting on the causes (with 29 measures);
- Group B, acting on the consequences (with 24 measures).
3.1.2. Database #2
3.1.3. Database #3
3.2. Ovar Case Study
3.3. Participatory Approach
- How should we act? At the level of the causes and/or consequences of coastal erosion?
- Which type of intervention should we choose?
- What are the economic, social and/or environmental impacts of each type of strategy?
- What are the costs and benefits inherent to each type of solution?
3.4. Land Use and Ecosystem Service Values
3.5. Adaptation Pathway and Tipping Points
4. Results
- Database #1—Mitigation and Adaptation Measures (53 individual sheets);
- Database #2—Impacts of Mitigation and Adaptation Measures (160 individual sheets);
- Database #3—Direct Costs of Mitigation and Adaptation Measures (53 individual sheets).
4.1. Database #1: Mitigation and Adaptation Measures
4.2. Database #2: Impacts of Mitigation and Adaptation Measures
4.3. Database #3: Costs of Mitigation and Adaptation Measures
4.4. Adaptation Plan
- Artificial beach nourishment (meta-measure A32);
- Preservation of dune systems (meta-measure A22);
- Strengthening of the dune systems (meta-measure A33);
- Nourishing the littoral drift (meta-measure A31);
- Detached breakwaters (meta-measure A14);
- Accommodation of the built-up area (meta-measure B21);
- Education, awareness raising and monitoring (meta-measure B23);
- Participatory governance (meta-measure B24);
- Financial instruments (meta-measure B25).
- Preservation of dune systems (meta-measure A22);
- Accommodation of urbanized buildings (meta-measure B21);
- Detached breakwaters (meta-measure A14).
- Avoiding the loss of urban territory through the use of artificial nourishments, as opposed to the expansion of rocky engineering works (groins and revetments);
- Relocation of communities (housing and activities) that are currently in danger and whose scenarios show that they will remain so in the coming years;
- Maintaining coastal defense works and evaluating the possible construction of a detached breakwater in the Furadouro area. Combining engineering works with artificial nourishments in key areas—Esmoriz, Cortegaça and Furadouro;
- Naturalization of areas left free by the relocation of communities (e.g., Cortegaça camping area).
5. Discussion
- Information: It is necessary to expand and make accessible the databases referring to the dates of overtopping/flooding events and the respective damage, as well as data referring to the implementation and maintenance of protection works. These historical and present data are crucial for the public, technical and scientific communities in the debate about the most viable adaptation plan for each location.
- Participation: The involvement of diverse groups of stakeholders in participatory and decision-making processes is fundamental for delineating future plans with the greatest acceptance and collective benefit. By integrating members of academia, local administration, institutions, civil protection entities, NGOs and interested citizens, it is possible to merge scientific and empirical knowledge, reconcile tradition with development, obtain a multidisciplinary vision of the system and reach equitable solutions.
- Intervention: The decision on the most relevant measures to be adopted must be considered, always bearing in mind the potential for complementary solutions. During the participatory moments, the stakeholders expressed their interest in protecting the urbanized areas and maintaining the socio-economic values of the beaches of Ovar through the combined application of artificial nourishments and the reconfiguration of existing coastal protection works.
- Projection: It is necessary to continue investing in local knowledge, namely regarding the social and economic potential of beaches and urban areas but also the value of coastal ecosystems in the region. Additionally, the costs of interventions must be defined in such a way as to allow cost–benefit analyses to be carried out with rigor and real representativeness.
- Monitoring: It is necessary to reinforce the idea of the need to continuously monitor the progress of the implementation and effectiveness of the measures adopted and consider all the effects that may affect their functioning. Observing coastal erosion patterns and the sea-level rise rates, the performance of both coastal protection structures and artificial nourishment interventions must be studied year by year, allowing adjusting and, if necessary, adopting different adaptation paths.
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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References | Strategy |
---|---|
[3,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39] | Protection—involving all defense techniques (hard and/or soft protection) used to preserve vulnerable areas, such as population centers, economic activities and natural resources. |
[3,29,30,32,33,34,35,38,40,41,42,43] | Accommodation—considering all strategies necessary to increase the society’s resilience to coastal erosion, including land use change, emergency planning and hazard insurance; persisting in occupying sensitive areas but accepting a greater degree of flooding by changing land use, construction methods and improving preparedness. |
[3,29,30,32,34,35,44] | Planned/Managed Retreat/Relocation—limiting the effects of a potentially dangerous event, landward resettling of risky population centers and economic activities. |
[3,29,34,35,45,46] | Use of Ecosystems/Ecosystem-based adaptation—influencing processes related to coastal erosion and marine flooding (e.g., sediment capture and energy attenuation) by means of the creation and restoration of coastal ecosystems, such as wetlands (e.g., mangroves), biogenic reef structures (e.g., corals, oysters and mussels), seagrass beds and dune vegetation. |
[3,34,35] | Doing nothing/sacrificing areas—unplanned retreat in loss by erosion. |
A. ACTION ON THE CAUSES OF COASTAL EROSION | |||
1. Reduction of the sediment deficit in the coastal system: Set of measures aimed at combating the deficit of sediments reaching the coastal system, via rivers, or removed directly from the coastal zone. | 1. Re-naturalizing or conditioning the uses of the soil (hydrographic basin): Subset of measures that can allow a greater amount of sediment that results from water erosion of watershed soils to effectively reach the coast. | 1. Decrease of the artificialized or lined area on the slopes of the catchment area | A111 |
2. Reduction of obstacles that condition soil erosion by water | A112 | ||
2. Reduction or removal of works across watercourses: Subset of measures that suggest the reduction or removal of sediment deposition at weirs and dams. | 1. Elimination or partial removal of weirs and dams | A121 | |
2. Reduction or removal of sediment deposition on dams | A122 | ||
3. Longitudinal works (on banks): Subset of measures that suggest less protection of riverbanks (revetments and walls) to allow greater flow of sediments in rivers so that they can reach the coast. | 1. Reducing the impact of riverbank protection | A131 | |
4. Channels—bypasses: Subset of measures that suggest an increase in the net flow rate flowing into natural waterways, also inducing greater solid transport. | 1. Increase of liquid and solid flow by reduction of diversions | A141 | |
2. Increase of liquid and solid flow by reduction of irrigation/supply channels | A142 | ||
5. Sand extraction: Subset of measures that aim to reduce the volumes of sand extraction in order to keep the sand in the river and coastal system. | 1. Limitation and control of volumes of sand used in construction | A151 | |
2. Replacement of sediments in the river or coastal system resulting from de-sanding actions | A152 | ||
6. Non-replenishment port dredging: Subset of measures that suggest that port dredging results in the replenishment of the sand in the coastal system. | 1. Prohibition of port dredging without replenishment | A161 | |
7. Beach users: Subset of measures aimed at controlling the outflow of sand from the coastal system through the beach users for leisure or sport. | 1. Control of beach sanding by beach users | A171 | |
2. Regulating the flow of sediments in the coastal system: A set of measures designed to balance the flow of sediments in the coastal system, allowing it to be regularized. | 1. Mobilization of sands within the coastal system: Subset of measures aimed at transferring sands in the harbor system to the most eroded areas, on the seabed or at moving them along the beach profile. | 1. Fixed sand transposition in port areas | A211 |
2. Mobile sand transposition in harbor areas | A212 | ||
3. Sand ripping | A213 | ||
2. Dune system preservation: Subset of measures designed to balance and maintain sediments in dune systems (fences, control of beach access, planting of vegetation). | 1. Limitation of trampling through beach access walkways | A221 | |
2. Retention of sand carried by the wind through dune regenerators | A222 | ||
3. Planting of vegetation for dune stabilization | A223 | ||
3. Management of groins: Subset of measures designed to manage groins in order to keep sediments in the coastal system in a more effective way. | 1. Abandonment and/or removal of the spur to restore sediment dynamics | A231 | |
2. Resizing the groin geometry | A232 | ||
4. Navigation channel dredging: Subset of measures that suggest deposition in areas of greater potential erosion, on the foreshore. | 1. Mandatory deposition of sediments below the navigation channel | A241 | |
3. Artificial feeding of sediments into the coastal system: Set of measures aimed at artificial feeding in order to mitigate coastal erosion. | 1. Nourishment of the littoral drift: Subset of measures focusing on the artificial nourishment of the littoral drift. | 1. Feeding the coastal drift through sediments from offshore | A311 |
2. Feeding the coastal drift through sediments from onshore deposits | A312 | ||
3. Feeding the coastal drift through sediments coming from dredging in the estuary/river | A313 | ||
2. Beach nourishment: Subset of measures focusing on artificial beach nourishment. | 1. Beach nourishment by sediments from offshore | A321 | |
2. Beach nourishment through sediments from onshore deposits | A322 | ||
3. Beach nourishment by sediments from dredging in the estuary/river | A323 | ||
3. Dune cordon reinforcement: Subset of measures focused on the artificial feeding of the dune cordon. | 1. Dune cordon reinforcement through offshore sediments | A331 | |
2. Reinforcement of the dune cordon through sediments originating from onshore deposits | A332 | ||
3. Reinforcement of the dune cord through sediments coming from dredging in the estuary/river | A333 | ||
B. ACTION ON THE CONSEQUENCES OF EROSION | |||
1. Protection with coastal structures: Set of measures aimed at protecting infrastructures and assets from coastal erosion, as well as from damage caused by the advancing sea. | 1. Groins: subset of measures that promote the retention of sediments in the area to be protected, creating a more robust beach. | 1. Protection with linear groins (perpendicular or oblique) | B111 |
2. Protection with non-linear groins (Y, T, L) | B112 | ||
2. Adhering longitudinal works: Subset of measures that aim to protect the heritage near the coast by fixing the position of the shoreline and dissipating wave energy. | 1. Protection with longitudinally adherent works on simple slope | B121 | |
2. Protection with longitudinal earthworks with intermediate landing(s) | B122 | ||
3. Protection with longitudinal earthworks with raised crest | B123 | ||
4. Protection with longitudinal earthworks with geocylinders or other geosynthetic materials | B124 | ||
3. Retaining walls: Subset of measures aimed at protecting the slopes, land and property next to the coast. | 1. Protection with vertical structures for embankment containment | B131 | |
4. Detached breakwaters: Subset of measures that aim to dissipate wave energy further away from the coast, also promoting sediment accumulation in the sheltered area. | 1. Protection with detached sunken pillars | B141 | |
2. Protection with detached submerged breakwaters | B142 | ||
3. Protection with submerged detached breakwaters, in geosynthetic materials | B143 | ||
4. Protection with submerged detached breakwaters, as artificial reefs (blocks or sunken ships) | B144 | ||
2. Accommodation: Set of measures aimed at accommodating the coast to coastal erosion mechanisms. | 1. Building/urbanization adaptation: Subset of measures that aim at the adaptation of buildings near the coast, to adjust to possible sea onslaughts. | 1. Accommodation of the built environment to the natural dynamics of the site (empty ground floors or temporary buildings) | B211 |
2. Rearrangement of urban fronts, creating infrastructures adjusted to the new reality | B212 | ||
3. Zoning and management of coastal areas according to the mapping of risk levels | B213 | ||
2. Warning systems: Subset of measures that aim to warn the population of possible damage caused by sea assaults and storms. | 1. Warning system management | B221 | |
3. Education, awareness raising and monitoring: Subset of measures that aim to educate and raise awareness among the population of the consequences of coastal erosion. | 1. Educating and raising awareness of the population of the problem and its solutions | B231 | |
2. Promotion of knowledge through monitoring and studies | B232 | ||
4. Participatory governance: Subset of measures aimed at involving stakeholders in coastal management. | 1. Participatory involvement of stakeholders in coastal management through articulated and coherent governance | B241 | |
5. Financial instruments and incentives: Subset of measures aiming at the mitigation and financial compensation of the risks of loss and damage caused by coastal erosion. | 1. Insurance management according to risk levels | B251 | |
2. Identifying and raising complementary sources of funding | B252 | ||
3. Municipal fiscal instruments | B253 | ||
3. Relocation and/or removal: Set of measures that provide for relocation and/or removal as a way of mitigating the risk of coastal erosion. | 1. Building relocation: Subset of measures aimed at relocating mobile or semi-mobile buildings, through demolition and construction in a more secluded area. | 1. Building relocation through demolition and construction | B311 |
2. Relocation of mobile or semi-mobile buildings | B312 | ||
2. Building demolition: Subset of measures that aim at the demolition of buildings in order to avoid losses or damage caused by coastal erosion. | 1. Demolition of the built environment | B321 |
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Coelho, C.; Lima, M.; Alves, F.M.; Roebeling, P.; Pais-Barbosa, J.; Marto, M. Assessing Coastal Erosion and Climate Change Adaptation Measures: A Novel Participatory Approach. Environments 2023, 10, 110. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments10070110
Coelho C, Lima M, Alves FM, Roebeling P, Pais-Barbosa J, Marto M. Assessing Coastal Erosion and Climate Change Adaptation Measures: A Novel Participatory Approach. Environments. 2023; 10(7):110. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments10070110
Chicago/Turabian StyleCoelho, Carlos, Márcia Lima, Filipe M. Alves, Peter Roebeling, Joaquim Pais-Barbosa, and Marco Marto. 2023. "Assessing Coastal Erosion and Climate Change Adaptation Measures: A Novel Participatory Approach" Environments 10, no. 7: 110. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments10070110