Secular and Religious Social Support Better Protect Blacks than Whites against Depressive Symptoms
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Design, Setting and Sampling
2.2. Measures
2.3. Statistical Analysis
2.4. Ethics
3. Results
4. Discussion
Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Ethics
References
- González, H.M.; Tarraf, W.; Whitfield, K.E.; Vega, W.A. The epidemiology of major depression and ethnicity in the United States. J. Psychol. Res. 2010, 44, 1043–1051. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Williams, D.R.; González, H.M.; Neighbors, H.; Nesse, R.; Abelson, J.M.; Sweetman, J.; Jackson, J.S. Prevalence and distribution of major depressive disorder in African Americans, Caribbean Blacks and Non-Hispanic Whites: Results from the National Survey of American Life. Arch. Gen. Psychiatr. 2007, 64, 305–315. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Owen, W.F., Jr. Racial differences in incidence, outcome and quality of life for African-Americans on hemodialysis. Blood Purif. 1996, 14, 278–285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Keyes, C.L. The Black–White paradox in health: Flourishing in the face of social inequality and discrimination. J. Pers. 2009, 77, 1677–1706. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Barnes, D.M.; Keyes, K.M.; Bates, L.M. Racial differences in depression in the United States: How do subgroup analyses inform a paradox? Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 2013, 48, 1941–1949. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Assari, S.; Zivin, K.; Burgard, S. Long-term reciprocal associations between depressive symptoms and number of chronic medical conditions: Longitudinal support for black? White health paradox. J. Racial Ethn. Health Dispar. 2015, 2, 589–597. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mouzon, D.M. Relationships of Choice: Can Friendships or Fictive Kin Explain the Race Paradox in Mental Health? Soc. Sci. Res. 2014, 44, 32–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mouzon, D.M. Can Family Relationships Explain the Race Paradox in Mental Health? J. Marriage Fam. 2013, 75, 470–485. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cabassa, L.J.; Humensky, J.; Druss, B.; Lewis-Fernández, R.; Gomes, A.P.; Wang, S.; Blanco, C. Do race, ethnicity and psychiatric diagnoses matter in the prevalence of multiple chronic medical conditions? Med. Care 2013, 51, 540–547. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Johnson-Lawrence, V.D.; Griffith, D.M.; Watkins, D.C. The effects of race, ethnicity and mood/anxiety disorders on the chronic physical health conditions of men from a national sample. Am. J. Men Health 2013, 7, 58S–67S. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lindhorst, J.; Alexander, N.; Blignaut, J.; Rayner, B. Differences in hypertension between blacks and whites: An overview. Cardiovasc. J. Afr. 2007, 18, 241–247. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Signorello, L.B.; Schlundt, D.G.; Cohen, S.S.; Steinwandel, M.D.; Buchowski, M.S.; McLaughlin, J.K.; Blot, W.J. Comparing diabetes prevalence between African Americans and Whites of similar socioeconomic status. Am. J. Public Health 2007, 97, 2260–2267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jackson, C.L.; Szklo, M.; Yeh, H.C.; Wang, N.Y.; Dray-Spira, R.; Thorpe, R.; Brancati, F.L. Black-white disparities in overweight and obesity trends by educational attainment in the United States, 1997–2008. J. Obes. 2013, 2013, 140743. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Watkins, D.C.; Assari, S.; Johnson-Lawrence, V. Race and ethnic group differences in comorbid major depressive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder and chronic medical conditions. J. Racial Ethn. Health Dispar. 2015, 2, 385–394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Assari, S. Race and ethnic differences in additive and multiplicative effects of depression and anxiety on cardiovascular risk. Int. J. Prev. Med. 2016, 7, 22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Assari, S. Unequal gain of equal resources across racial groups. Int. J. Health Policy Manag. 2018, 7, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Assari, S. Health disparities due to diminished return among black Americans: Public policy solutions. Soc. Issues Policy Rev. 2018, 12, 112–145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Assari, S.; Lankarani, M.M. Race and urbanity alter the protective effect of education but not income on mortality. Front. Public Health 2016, 4, 100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Assari, S. Life expectancy gain due to employment status depends on race, gender, education and their intersections. J. Racial Ethn. Health Dispar. 2018, 5, 375–386. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Assari, S. The Benefits of Higher Income in Protecting against Chronic Medical Conditions Are Smaller for African Americans than Whites. Healthcare 2018, 6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Assari, S.; Mistry, R. Educational Attainment and Smoking Status in a National Sample of American Adults; Evidence for the Blacks’ Diminished Return. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Assari, S.; Thomas, A.; Caldwell, C.H.; Mincy, R.B. Blacks’ diminished health return of family structure and socioeconomic status; 15 years of follow-up of a national urban sample of youth. J. Urban Health 2018, 95, 21–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Blank, M.B.; Mahmood, M.; Fox, J.C.; Guterbock, T. Alternative mental health services: The role of the Black church in the South. Am. J. Public Health 2002, 92, 1668–1672. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Constantine, M.G.; Lewis, E.L.; Conner, L.C.; Sanchez, D. Addressing spiritual and religious issues in counseling African Americans: Implications for counselor training and practice. Couns. Values 2000, 45, 28–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Assari, S. Race and Ethnicity, Religion Involvement, Church-based Social Support and Subjective Health in United States: A Case of Moderated Mediation. Int. J. Prev. Med. 2013, 4, 208–217. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Skarupski, K.A.; Fitchett, G.; Evans, D.A. Mendes de Leon CF. Race differences in the association of spiritual experiences and life satisfaction in older age. Aging Ment. Health 2013, 17, 888–895. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ellison, C.G.; Levin, J.S. The religion-health connection: Evidence, theory and future directions. Health Educ. Behav. 1998, 25, 700–720. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Koenig, H.G. Research on religion, spirituality and mental health: A review. Can. J. Psychiatry 2009, 54, 283–291. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Holt, C.L.; Wang, M.Q.; Clark, E.M.; Williams, B.R.; Schulz, E. Religious involvement and physical and emotional functioning among African Americans: The mediating role of religious support. Psychol. Health 2013, 28, 267–283. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Brownfield, D.; Sorenson, A.M. Religion and drug use among adolescents: A social support conceptualization and interpretation. Deviant Behav. 1991, 12, 259–276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ferraro, K.F.; Koch, J.R. Religion and health among black and white adults: Examining social support and consolation. J. Sci. Study Relig. 1994, 362–375. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Krause, N.; Ellison, C.G.; Marcum, J.P. The effects of church-based emotional support on health: Do they vary by gender? Sociol. Relig. 2002, 63, 21–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Krause, N. Exploring race differences in a comprehensive battery of church-based social support measures. Rev. Relig. Res. 2002, 126–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Krause, N.; Ellison, C.G.; Shaw, B.A.; Marcum, J.P.; Boardman, J.D. Church-based social support and religious coping. J. Sci. Study Relig. 2001, 40, 637–656. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chatters, L.M.; Nguyen, A.W.; Taylor, R.J.; Hope, M.O. Church and family support networks and depressive symptoms among African Americans: Findings from the National Survey of American Life. J. Community Psychol. 2018, 46, 403–417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chatters, L.M.; Taylor, R.J.; Woodward, A.T.; Nicklett, E.J. Social support from church and family members and depressive symptoms among older African Americans. Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 2015, 23, 559–567. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Taylor, R.J.; Chatters, L.M. Church members as a source of informal social support. Rev. Relig. Res. 1988, 193–203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Taylor, R.J.; Chatters, L.M. Church-based informal support among elderly blacks. Gerontologist 1986, 26, 637–642. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Taylor, R.J.; Chatters, L.M.; Levin, J. Religion in the Lives of African Americans: Social, Psychological and Health Perspectives; Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 2003. [Google Scholar]
- Cohen, S.; Wills, T.A. Stress, social support and the buffering hypothesis. Psychol. Bull. 1985, 98, 310–357. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lincoln, K.D.; Chatters, L.M.; Taylor, R.J. Psychological distress among Black and White Americans: Differential effects of social support, negative interaction and personal control. J. Health Soc. Behav. 2003, 44, 390–407. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Krause, N. Exploring the stress-buffering effects of church-based and secular social support on self-rated health in late life. J. Gerontol. B Psychol. Sci. Soc. Sci. 2006, 61, S35–S43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sachs-Ericsson, N.; Burns, A.B.; Gordon, K.H.; Eckel, L.A.; Wonderlich, S.A.; Crosby, R.D.; Blazer, D.G. Body mass index and depressive symptoms in older adults: The moderating roles of race, sex and socioeconomic status. Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 2007, 15, 815–825. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gavin, A.R.; Rue, T.; Takeuchi, D. Racial/ethnic differences in the association between obesity and major depressive disorder: Findings from the Comprehensive Psychiatric Epidemiology Surveys. Public Health Rep. 2010, 125, 698–708. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Assari, S. Separate and Combined Effects of Anxiety, Depression and Problem Drinking on Subjective Health among Black, Hispanic and Non-Hispanic White Men. Int. J. Prev. Med. 2014, 5, 269–279. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Assari, S.; Lankarani, M.M. Race and ethnic differences in associations between cardiovascular diseases, anxiety and depression in the United States. Int. J. Travel Med. Glob. Health 2014, 2, 103–109. [Google Scholar]
- Lewis, T.T.; Guo, H.; Lunos, S.; de Leon, C.F.M.; Skarupski, K.A.; Evans, D.A.; Everson-Rose, S.A. Depressive Symptoms and Cardiovascular Mortality in Older Black and White Adults Evidence for a Differential Association by Race. Circ. Cardiovasc. Qual. Outcomes 2011, 4, 293–299. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Capistrant, B.D.; Gilsanz, P.; Moon, J.R.; Kosheleva, A.; Patton, K.K.; Glymour, M.M. Does the association between depressive symptoms and cardiovascular mortality risk vary by race? Evidence from the Health and Retirement Study. Ethn. Dis. 2013, 23, 155–160. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Assari, S.; Sonnega, A.; Pepin, R.; Leggett, A. Residual Effects of Restless Sleep over Depressive Symptoms on Chronic Medical Conditions: Race by Gender Differences. J. Racial Ethn. Health Dispar. 2016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Assari, S.; Burgard, S. Black-White differences in the effect of baseline depressive symptoms on deaths due to renal diseases: 25 year follow up of a nationally representative community sample. J. Renal Inj. Prev. 2015, 4, 127–134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Assari, S.; Moazen-Zadeh, E.; Lankarani, M.M.; Micol-Foster, V. Race, Depressive Symptoms and All-Cause Mortality in the United States. Front. Public Health 2016, 4, 40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Assari, S.; Lankarani, M.M. Chronic Medical Conditions and Negative Affect; Racial Variation in Reciprocal Associations over Time. Front. Psychiatry 2016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Assari, S. Combined Racial and Gender Differences in the Long-Term Predictive Role of Education on Depressive Symptoms and Chronic Medical Conditions. J. Racial Ethn. Health Dispar. 2016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Moazen-Zadeh, E.; Assari, S. Depressive Symptoms Predict Major Depressive Disorder after 15 Years among Whites but Not Blacks. Front. Public Health 2016, 4, 13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lee, S.J.; Moody-Ayers, S.Y.; Landefeld, C.S.; Walter, L.C.; Lindquist, K.; Segal, M.R.; Covinsky, K.E. The relationship between self-rated health and mortality in older black and white Americans. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 2007, 55, 1624–1629. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Assari, S.; Lankarani, M.M.; Burgard, S. Black White Difference in Long Term Predictive Power of Self-Rated Health on All-Cause Mortality in United States. Ann. Epidemiol. 2016, 26, 106–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ferraro, K.F.; Kelley-Moore, J.A. Self-rated health and mortality among black and white adults: Examining the dynamic evaluation thesis. J. Gerontol. B Psychol. Sci. Soc. Sci. 2001, 56, S195–S205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Krause, N. Religion, Aging and Health Survey, 2001, 2004 [United States]. ICPSR03255-v2; Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor]: Ann Arbor, MI, USA, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Krause, N. Church-based volunteering, providing informal support at church and self-rated health in late life. J. Aging Health 2009, 21, 63–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Radloff, L.S. The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Appl. Psychol. Meas. 1977, 1, 385–401. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Amtmann, D.; Kim, J.; Chung, H.; Bamer, A.M.; Askew, R.L.; Wu, S.; Cook, K.F.; Johnson, K.L. Comparing CESD-10, PHQ-9 and PROMIS depression instruments in individuals with multiple sclerosis. Rehabil. Psychol. 2014, 59, 220–229. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhang, W.; O’Brien, N.; Forrest, J.I.; Salters, K.A.; Patterson, T.L.; Montaner, J.S.; Hogg, R.S.; Lima, V.D. Validating a shortened depression scale (10 item CES-D) among HIV-positive people in British Columbia, Canada. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e40793. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Andresen, E.M.; Malmgren, J.A.; Carter, W.B.; Patrick, D.L. Screening for depression in well older adults: Evaluation of a short form of the CES-D (Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale). Am. J. Prev. Med. 1994, 10, 77–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abu-Raiya, H.; Pargament, K.I.; Krause, N. Religion as problem, religion as solution: Religious buffers of the links between religious/spiritual struggles and well-being/mental health. Qual. Life Res. 2016, 25, 1265–1274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hayward, R.D.; Krause, N. Forms of Attrition in a Longitudinal Study of Religion and Health in Older Adults and Implications for Sample Bias. J. Relig. Health 2016, 55, 50–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Krause, N. Church-Based Emotional Support and Self-Forgiveness in Late Life. Rev. Relig. Res. 2010, 52, 72–89. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Krause, N. A comprehensive strategy for developing closed-ended survey items for use in studies of older adults. J. Gerontol. Soc. Sci. 2002, 57, S263–S274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Krause, N.; Hayward, R.D. Church-based social support, functional disability and change in personal control over time. J. Relig. Health 2014, 53, 267–278. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cohen, S.; Underwood, L.G.; Gottlieb, B.H. (Eds.) Social Support Measurement and Intervention: A Guide for Health and Social Scientists; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 2000. [Google Scholar]
- Krause, N. Church-based social support and health in old age: Exploring variations by race. J. Gerontol. B Psychol. Sci. Soc. Sci. 2002, 57, S332–S347. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mutran, E. Intergenerational family support among blacks and whites: Response to culture or to socioeconomic differences. J. Gerontol. 1985, 40, 382–389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Strogatz, D.S.; James, S.A. Social support and hypertension among blacks and whites in a rural, southern community. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1986, 124, 949–956. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Taylor, R.J.; Chatters, L.M.; Jackson, J.S. Changes over time in support network involvement among black Americans. In Family Life in Black America; Taylor, R.J., Jackson, J.S., Chatters, L.M., Eds.; Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 1997; pp. 293–316. [Google Scholar]
- Drevenstedt, G. Race and ethnic differences in the effects of religious attendance on subjective health. Rev. Relig. Res. 1998, 39, 245–263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Billingsley, A. Climbing Jacob’s Ladder: Enduring Legacy of African American Familie; Simon and Schuster: New York, NY, USA, 1992. [Google Scholar]
- Chaves, M.L.; Higgins, M. Comparing the community involvement of black and white congregations. J. Sci. Study Relig. 1992, 31, 425–440. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ammerman, N. Tatom Bible Believers: Fundamentalists in the Modern World; Rutgers University Press: New Brunswick, NJ, USA, 1987. [Google Scholar]
- Chatters, L.M.; Taylor, R.J.; Jackson, J.S.; Lincoln, K.D. Religious coping among African Americans, caribbean blacks and non-hispanic whites. J. Community Psychol. 2008, 36, 371–386. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Assari, S. Whites but Not Blacks Gain Life Expectancy from Social Contacts. Behav. Sci. 2017, 7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Schwartz, S.J. The applicability of familism to diverse ethnic groups: A preliminary study. J. Soc. Psychol. 2007, 147, 101–118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Constantine, M.G.; Gainor, K.A.; Ahluwalia, M.K.; Berkel, L.A. Independent and interdependent self-construals, individualism, collectivism and harmony control in African Americans. J. Black Psychol. 2003, 29, 87–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Morling, B.; Fiske, S.T. Defining and measuring harmony control. J. Res. Personal. 1999, 33, 379–414. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ebigbo, P.O.; Oluka, J.; Ezenwa, M.; Obidigbo, G.; Okwaraji, E. Harmony restoration therapy—An African contribution to psychotherapy. IFE Psychol. Int. J. 1997, 5, 51–70. [Google Scholar]
- Morling, B.; Kitayama, S.; Miyamoto, Y. Cultural practices emphasize influence in the United States and adjustment in Japan. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 2002, 28, 311–323. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McDowell, I. Measures of self-perceived well-being. J. Psychosom. Res. 2010, 69, 69–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hunt, M.O. The Individual, society, or both? A comparison of black, latino and white beliefs about the causes of poverty. Soc. Forces 1996, 75, 293–332. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hunt, M.O.; Jackson, P.B.; Powell, B.; Steelman, L.C. Color-blind: The treatment of race and ethnicity in social psychology. Soc. Psychol. Q. 2000, 63, 352–364. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lett, H.S.; Blumenthal, J.A.; Babyak, M.A.; Strauman, T.J.; Robins, C.; Sherwood, A. Social support and coronary heart disease: Epidemiologic evidence and implications for treatment. Psychosom. Med. 2005, 67, 869–878. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- House, J.S. Work Stress and Social Support; Addison-Wesley: Reading, MA, USA, 1981. [Google Scholar]
- House, J.S.; Kahn, R.L. Measures and concepts of social support. In Social Support and Health; Cohen, S., Syme, S.L., Eds.; Academic Press: New York, NY, USA, 1985; pp. 83–108. [Google Scholar]
- House, J.S.; Landis, K.R.; Umberson, D. Social relationships and health. Science 1988, 241, 540–545. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Uchino, B.N.; Cacioppo, J.T.; Kiecolt-Glaser, J.K. The relationship between social support and physiological processes: A review with emphasis on underlying mechanisms and implications for health. Psychol. Bull. 1996, 119, 488–531. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kiecolt-Glaser, J.K.; Newton, T.L. Marriage and health: His and hers. Psychol. Bull. 2001, 127, 472–503. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cacioppo, J.T.; Hawkley, L.C.; Crawford, E.; Ernst, J.M.; Burleson, M.H.; Kowalewski, R.B.; Berntson, G.G. Loneliness and health: Potential mechanisms. Psychosom. Med. 2002, 64, 407–417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cohen, S. Social Relationships and Health. Am. Psychol. 2004, 59, 676–684. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Krause, N. Feelings of Gratitude toward God among Older Whites, Older African Americans and Older Mexican Americans. Res. Aging 2012, 34, 156–173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Nelsen, H.M.; Nelsen, A.K. Black Church in the Sixties; University of Kentucky Press: Lexington, KY, USA, 1975. [Google Scholar]
- Roberts, J.D. Black Religion, Black Theology; Goatley, E.M., Ed.; Trinity Press International: Harrisburg, PA, USA, 2003. [Google Scholar]
- Dowd, J.B.; Zajacova, A. Does the predictive power of self-rated health for subsequent mortality risk vary by socioeconomic status in the US? Int. J. Epidemiol. 2007, 36, 1214–1221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Assari, S. Hostility and Cardiovascular Mortality among Blacks and Whites. Res. Cardiovasc. Med. 2016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Flegal, K.M.; Kit, B.K.; Orpana, H.; Graubard, B.I. Association of all-cause mortality with overweight and obesity using standard body mass index categories: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 2013, 309, 71–82. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Patel, A.V.; Hildebrand, J.S.; Gapstur, S.M. Body mass index and all-cause mortality in a large prospective cohort of white and black us Adults. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e109153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cohen, S.S.; Signorello, L.B.; Cope, E.L.; McLaughlin, J.K.; Hargreaves, M.K.; Zheng, W.; Blot, W.J. Obesity and all-cause mortality among black adults and white adults. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2012, 176, 431–442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Assari, S. Additive effects of anxiety and depression on body mass index among blacks: Role of ethnicity and gender. Int. Cardiovasc. Res. J. 2014, 8, 44–51. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Assari, S. Association between obesity and depression among American Blacks: Role of ethnicity and gender. J. Racial Ethn. Health Dispar. 2014, 1, 36–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gariepy, G.; Wang, J.; Lesage, A.D.; Schmitz, N. The Longitudinal Association from Obesity to Depression: Results From the 12-year National Population Health Survey. Obesity 2010, 18, 1033–1038. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cheng, J.K.Y.; Fancher, T.L.; Ratanasen, M.; Conner, K.R.; Duberstein, P.R.; Sue, S.; Takeuchi, D. Lifetime suicidal ideation and suicide attempts in Asian Americans. Asian Am. J. Psychol. 2010, 1, 18–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Assari, D.; Dejman, M.; Neighbors, H.W. Ethnic Differences in Separate and Additive Effects of Anxiety and Depression on Self Rated Mental Health among Blacks. J. Racial Ethn. Health Dispar. 2015. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lynch, C.P.; Gebregziabher, M.; Echols, C.; Gilbert, G.E.; Zhao, Y.; Egede, L.E. Racial disparities in all-cause mortality among veterans with type 2 diabetes. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 2010, 25, 1051–1056. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Assari, S. Cross-Country Differences in the Additive Effects of Socioeconomics, Health Behaviors and Medical Comorbidities on Disability among Older Adults with Heart Disease. J. Tehran Heart Cent. 2015, 10, 24–33. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Assari, S. Cross-country variation in additive effects of socio-economics, health behaviors and comorbidities on subjective health of patients with diabetes. J. Diabetes Metab. Disord. 2014, 13, 36. [Google Scholar]
- Assari, S. Race, sense of control over life and short-term risk of mortality among older adults in the United States. Arch. Med. Sci. 2016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Assari, S. Over-adjustment bias by controlling for overall health. Int. J. Prev. Med. 2013, 4, 491–492. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Schisterman, E.F.; Cole, S.R.; Platt, R.W. Overadjustment bias and unnecessary adjustment in epidemiologic studies. Epidemiology 2009, 20, 488–495. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- MacKinnon, D.P.; Krull, J.L.; Lockwood, C.M. Equivalence of the mediation, confounding and suppression effect. Prev. Sci. 2000, 1, 173–181. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Deaton, A.; Lubotsky, D. Mortality, inequality and race in American cities and states. Soc. Sci. Med. 2003, 56, 1139–1153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dressler, W.W.; Oths, K.S.; Gravlee, C.C. Race and ethnicity in public health research: Models to explain health disparities. Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2005, 34, 231–252. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
All | Whites | Blacks | ||||
Age | 75.14 | 6.66 | 75.37 | 6.82 | 74.91 | 6.49 |
Chronic Medical Conditions (Number) | 1.77 | 1.82 | 1.74 | 1.81 | 1.78 | 1.83 |
Depressive symptoms * | 1.49 | 0.69 | 1.47 | 0.62 | 1.52 | 0.77 |
Frequency of Church Attendance * | 5.73 | 2.72 | 5.34 | 2.91 | 6.11 | 2.46 |
Religious Support * | 1.89 | 0.95 | 1.73 | 0.91 | 2.02 | 0.96 |
Secular Support * | 0.16 | 0.62 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 1.92 | 1.15 |
n | % | n | % | n | % | |
Gender ** | ||||||
Male | 570 | 38.2 | 314 | 41.4 | 256 | 34.9 |
Female | 923 | 61.8 | 445 | 58.6 | 478 | 65.1 |
Education (High school diploma) | ||||||
Yes | 872 | 59.0 | 552 | 73.4 | 320 | 44.0 |
No | 607 | 41.0 | 200 | 26.6 | 407 | 56.0 |
Marital Status (Married) ** | ||||||
No | 773 | 52.2 | 306 | 40.5 | 467 | 64.3 |
Yes | 708 | 47.8 | 449 | 59.5 | 259 | 35.7 |
B(SE) | p | B(SE) | p | B(SE) | p | B(SE) | p | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 Pooled Sample Without Interaction | Model 2 Pooled Sample With Interaction | Model 3 Whites | Model 4 Blacks | |||||
Race (Blacks) | 0.00 (0.05) | 0.957 | 0.08 (0.11) | 0.308 | - | - | - | - |
Age | 0.05 (0.00) | 0.079 | 0.05 (0.00) | 0.084 | 0.09 (0.00) | 0.034 | 0.02 (0.01) | 0.710 |
Gender (Female) | 0.10 (0.05) | 0.003 | 0.1 (0.05) | 0.002 | 0.15 (0.05) | <0.001 | 0.04 (0.08) | 0.368 |
Education (High school diploma) | −0.07 (0.05) | 0.044 | −0.07 (0.05) | 0.047 | −0.04 (0.06) | 0.288 | −0.07 (0.07) | 0.111 |
Marital Status (Married) | 0.01 (0.05) | 0.778 | 0.01 (0.05) | 0.787 | 0.01 (0.06) | 0.851 | 0.00 (0.08) | 0.965 |
Chronic Medical Conditions (Number) | 0.23 (0.01) | <0.001 | 0.23 (0.01) | <0.001 | 0.26 (0.02) | <0.001 | 0.20 (0.02) | <0.001 |
Frequency of Church Attendance | −0.11 (0.01) | <0.001 | −0.08 (0.01) | 0.031 | −0.11 (0.01) | 0.012 | −0.12 (0.02) | 0.010 |
Frequency of Church Attendance × Race | - | - | −0.09 (0.02) | 0.271 | - | - | - | - |
B(SE) | p | B(SE) | p | B(SE) | p | B(SE) | p | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 Pooled Sample Without Interaction | Model 2 Pooled Sample With Interaction | Model 3 Whites | Model 4 Blacks | |||||
Race (Blacks) | 0.03 (0.06) | 0.496 | 0.19 (0.11) | 0.028 | - | - | - | - |
Age | 0.04 (0.00) | 0.272 | 0.04 (0.00) | 0.247 | 0.09 (0.01) | 0.132 | 0.01 (0.01) | 0.824 |
Gender (Female) | 0.10 (0.06) | 0.014 | 0.10 (0.06) | 0.011 | 0.19 (0.07) | 0.001 | 0.04 (0.09) | 0.483 |
Education (High school diploma) | −0.10 (0.06) | 0.010 | −0.10 (0.06) | 0.010 | 0.06 (0.08) | 0.309 | −0.02 (0.08) | 0.695 |
Marital Status (Married) | 0.02 (0.06) | 0.676 | 0.02 (0.06) | 0.723 | 0.08 (0.04) | 0.147 | −0.08 (0.04) | 0.129 |
Chronic Medical Conditions (Number) | 0.21 (0.02) | <0.001 | 0.21 (0.02) | <0.001 | 0.20 (0.02) | <0.001 | 0.21 (0.02) | <0.001 |
Religious Social Support | −0.02 (0.03) | 0.616 | 0.07 (0.04) | 0.199 | −0.10 (0.09) | 0.090 | −0.10 (0.08) | 0.058 |
Religious Social Support × Race | - | - | −0.21 (0.05) | 0.033 | - | - | - | - |
B(SE) | p | B(SE) | p | B(SE) | p | B(SE) | p | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 Pooled Sample Without Interaction | Model 2 Pooled Sample With Interaction | Model 3 Whites | Model 4 Blacks | |||||
Race (Blacks) | 0.06 (0.12) | 0.353 | 0.58 (0.23) | <0.001 | - | - | - | - |
Age | 0.05 (0.01) | 0.375 | 0.06 (0.01) | 0.308 | 0.09 (0.01) | 0.192 | 0.04 (0.02) | 0.708 |
Gender (Female) | 0.12 (0.10) | 0.051 | 0.14 (0.10) | 0.022 | 0.13 (0.10) | 0.092 | 0.17 (0.27) | 0.146 |
Education (High school diploma) | −0.03 (0.11) | 0.659 | −0.01 (0.10) | 0.812 | −0.03 (0.10) | 0.689 | 0.04 (0.28) | 0.752 |
Marital Status (Married) | −0.01 (0.10) | 0.852 | −0.02 (0.10) | 0.763 | −0.10 (0.10) | 0.167 | 0.13 (0.27) | 0.238 |
Chronic Medical Conditions (Number) | 0.22 (0.03) | <0.001 | 0.22 (0.03) | <0.001 | 0.27 (0.03) | <0.001 | 0.15 (0.08) | 0.173 |
Secular Support | −0.37 (0.05) | <0.001 | −0.14 (0.07) | 0.051 | −0.16 (0.06) | 0.033 | −0.64 (0.11) | <0.001 |
Secular Support × Race | - | - | −0.62 (0.10) | <0.001 | - | - | - | - |
© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Assari, S.; Moghani Lankarani, M. Secular and Religious Social Support Better Protect Blacks than Whites against Depressive Symptoms. Behav. Sci. 2018, 8, 46. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs8050046
Assari S, Moghani Lankarani M. Secular and Religious Social Support Better Protect Blacks than Whites against Depressive Symptoms. Behavioral Sciences. 2018; 8(5):46. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs8050046
Chicago/Turabian StyleAssari, Shervin, and Maryam Moghani Lankarani. 2018. "Secular and Religious Social Support Better Protect Blacks than Whites against Depressive Symptoms" Behavioral Sciences 8, no. 5: 46. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs8050046