Applying an Indigenous Connectedness Framework to Examine Environmental Risk and Protective Factors for Urban American Indian Children’s Executive Function Development
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Child Executive Function Skills (EF)
1.2. Connecting and Disconnecting Forces and Children’s Executive Function
1.2.1. Environmental Disconnectedness
1.2.2. Family Disconnectedness
1.2.3. Community Disconnectedness
1.2.4. Intergenerational Connectedness
1.2.5. Spiritual Connectedness
1.3. Present Study
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Participants
2.3. Measures
2.3.1. Neighborhood Risks (Environmental Disconnectedness)
2.3.2. Stressful Life Events (Family Disconnectedness)
2.3.3. Perceived Discrimination (Community Disconnectedness)
2.3.4. Cultural Beliefs and Traditional Practices (Spiritual Connectedness)
2.3.5. Knowledge and Impact of Tribal History (Intergenerational Connectedness)
2.3.6. Child Executive Function
2.3.7. Covariates
2.4. Analytic Strategy
3. Results
3.1. Prevalence and Co-Occurrence of Connecting and Disconnecting Forces
3.2. Connecting and Disconnecting Forces and Parent-Rated Child EF
3.3. Connecting and Disconnecting Forces and Child Self-Rated EF
4. Discussion
4.1. Connecting and Disconnecting Forces as Environmental Risk and Resilience Factors
4.2. Connecting Forces and Urban AI Children’s EF
4.3. Disconnecting Forces and Urban AI Children’s EF
4.4. Limitations and Future Directions
5. Conclusions and Implications
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Neighborhood Risks (Environmental) | n | M (SD) | Min | Max | Risk Present (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
High unemployment | 137 | 1.60 (0.72) | 1.0 | 3.0 | 46.72 |
Not enough good housing | 139 | 1.42 (0.61) | 1.0 | 3.0 | 35.25 |
Rundown houses/abandoned cars | 141 | 1.27 (0.48) | 1.0 | 3.0 | 25.53 |
Police are not available | 140 | 1.19 (0.45) | 1.0 | 3.0 | 17.14 |
Car accidents | 139 | 1.47 (0.65) | 1.0 | 3.0 | 38.85 |
Gangs | 141 | 1.23 (0.50) | 1.0 | 3.0 | 19.86 |
Unsupervised children | 140 | 1.54 (0.64) | 1.0 | 3.0 | 45.71 |
Teenage pregnancy | 139 | 1.19 (0.43) | 1.0 | 3.0 | 17.27 |
Domestic Violence | 140 | 1.39 (0.56) | 1.0 | 3.0 | 35.00 |
Police and people do not get along | 139 | 1.19 (0.40) | 1.0 | 3.0 | 19.42 |
Broken homes/family breakups | 138 | 1.31 (0.54) | 1.0 | 3.0 | 27.54 |
Physical violence/abuse/neglect | 138 | 1.28 (0.52) | 1.0 | 3.0 | 23.91 |
Burglaries/theft | 142 | 1.43 (0.56) | 1.0 | 3.0 | 39.44 |
Alcohol abuse | 140 | 1.39 (0.60) | 1.0 | 3.0 | 32.14 |
Drug dealing | 139 | 1.29 (0.48) | 1.0 | 3.0 | 22.30 |
Total neighborhood risks | 139 | 4.43 (4.65) | 0.0 | 15.0 | |
Discrimination (Community) | n | M (SD) | Min | Max | Risk Present (%) |
Problems in stores/restaurants | 127 | 0.24 (0.47) | 0.0 | 2.0 | 30.71 |
Cannot find work | 125 | 0.34 (0.54) | 0.0 | 2.0 | 20.00 |
Problems with police | 127 | 0.22 (0.45) | 0.0 | 2.0 | 22.83 |
Prejudice from White people | 127 | 0.52 (0.59) | 0.0 | 2.0 | 47.24 |
Total discrimination experiences | 125 | 1.21 (1.40) | 0.0 | 4.0 | |
Stressful Life Events (Family) | n | M (SD) | Min | Max | Risk Present (%) |
Threatened by gang or violence | 136 | 0.12 (0.32) | 0.0 | 1.0 | 11.76 |
Someone important attempted suicide | 134 | 0.19 (0.39) | 0.0 | 1.0 | 18.66 |
Someone important committed suicide | 136 | 0.07 (0.26) | 0.0 | 1.0 | 7.35 |
Car accident/other serious accident | 135 | 0.13 (0.33) | 0.0 | 1.0 | 12.59 |
Family violence | 136 | 0.39 (0.49) | 0.0 | 1.0 | 38.97 |
Physical abuse (partner) | 135 | 0.19 (0.39) | 0.0 | 1.0 | 18.52 |
Physical abuse (non-partner) | 136 | 0.20 (0.40) | 0.0 | 1.0 | 19.85 |
Attacked outside the home | 136 | 0.18 (0.39) | 0.0 | 1.0 | 18.38 |
Direct combat experience | 136 | 0.05 (0.22) | 0.0 | 1.0 | 5.15 |
Total stressful life events | 135 | 1.52 (1.79) | 0.0 | 7.0 |
Cultural Beliefs/Traditional Practices (Spiritual) | n | M (SD) | Min | Max | % Agree | % Strongly Agree |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Being a part of my tribe important to me | 128 | 4.22 (1.03) | 1.0 | 5.0 | 29.69 | 51.56 |
My life is affected by being American Indian | 128 | 3.23 (1.28) | 1.0 | 5.0 | 30.47 | 18.75 |
I have a lot of pride in my tribe | 128 | 4.16 (1.05) | 1.0 | 5.0 | 29.69 | 49.22 |
I speak/learning to speak tribal language | 128 | 3.69 (1.25) | 1.0 | 5.0 | 35.16 | 30.47 |
I follow tribal religious/spiritual traditions | 128 | 3.43 (1.33) | 1.0 | 5.0 | 26.56 | 26.56 |
I listen/sing/dance to tribal music | 128 | 3.23 (1.42) | 1.0 | 5.0 | 20.31 | 25.78 |
I have a strong sense of belonging to tribe | 128 | 3.75 (1.20) | 1.0 | 5.0 | 28.91 | 34.38 |
I learn about my tribe or culture | 128 | 3.89 (1.10) | 1.0 | 5.0 | 34.38 | 35.16 |
I feel good about my tribal background | 127 | 4.29 (0.97) | 1.0 | 5.0 | 29.13 | 54.33 |
Average cultural beliefs/traditional practices | 128 | 3.71 (0.79) | 0.0 | 5.0 | ||
Knowledge of Tribal History (Intergenerational) | n | M (SD) | Min | Max | % “Some” | % “A lot” |
How much do you think about tribal history? | 133 | 2.10 (0.60) | 1.0 | 3.0 | 63.16 | 23.31 |
How much do you know about tribal history? | 134 | 1.99 (0.59) | 1.0 | 3.0 | 65.67 | 16.42 |
How big an impact tribal history on personal life? | 134 | 2.02 (0.72) | 1.0 | 3.0 | 48.51 | 23.13 |
How big an impact tribal history on community? | 134 | 2.05 (0.64) | 1.0 | 2.0 | 58.96 | 26.87 |
Average knowledge/impact of tribal history | 133 | 1.99 (0.61) | 1.0 | 3.0 |
Parent Ratings (Full Sample) | Child Ratings (11–14) | Parent Ratings (11–14) | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | M (SD) | Min | Max | n | M (SD) | Min | Max | n | M (SD) | Min | Max | |
BRIEF working mem. | 138 | 2.41 (0.49) | 1.00 | 3.00 | 56 | 2.38 (0.41) | 1.42 | 3.00 | 71 | 2.41 (0.45) | 1.00 | 3.00 |
BRIEF inhibition | 138 | 2.57 (0.42) | 1.00 | 3.00 | 56 | 2.57 (0.35) | 1.50 | 3.00 | 71 | 2.63 (0.40) | 1.00 | 3.00 |
BRIEF cog. flexibility | 138 | 2.56 (0.41) | 1.14 | 3.00 | 57 | 2.44 (0.34) | 1.60 | 3.00 | 71 | 2.60 (0.43) | 1.14 | 3.00 |
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1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Child age | - | |||||||||||||
2. Child sex | 0.01 | - | ||||||||||||
3. Family income | −0.01 | −0.13 | - | |||||||||||
4. Neighbor. risks | 0.01 | 0.16 | 0.06 | - | ||||||||||
5. Stress. life events | 0.12 | 0.12 | −0.11 | 0.39 *** | - | |||||||||
6. Tribal history | 0.05 | 0.07 | 0.01 | 0.08 | −0.01 | - | ||||||||
7. Discrimination | −0.15 | −0.06 | 0.13 | 0.32 *** | 0.15 | 0.15 | - | |||||||
8. Culture. practices | −0.15 | 0.07 | 0.17 | 0.08 | −0.12 | 0.38 *** | 0.28 ** | - | ||||||
9. P. Working mem. | −0.01 | −0.10 | −0.08 | −0.13 | −0.09 | 0.03 | −0.20 ** | 0.18 * | - | |||||
10. P. cog. flex. | 0.07 | 0.03 | −0.06 | −0.01 | −0.08 | 0.03 | −0.23 * | 0.10 | 0.58 *** | - | ||||
11. P. inhibition | 0.13 | 0.06 | −0.13 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.20 * | −0.15 | 0.13 | 0.65 *** | 0.58 *** | - | |||
12. C. working mem. | −0.13 | 0.04 | −0.22 | −0.15 | −0.08 | 0.03 | −0.09 | 0.04 | 0.07 | −0.13 | 0.02 | - | ||
13. C. cog. flex. | 0.08 | 0.10 | −0.17 | −0.31 * | −0.13 | 0.24 | −0.03 | 0.02 | 0.02 | −0.22 | 0.12 | 0.72 *** | - | |
14. C. inhibition | −0.17 | 0.02 | −0.02 | −0.31 * | −0.27 | −0.01 | 0.10 | 0.40 ** | 0.23 | 0.12 | 0.14 | 0.74 *** | 0.49 *** | - |
Working Memory | Inhibition | Cog. Flexibility | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B (SE) | p | B (SE) | p | B (SE) | p | |
Neighborhood risk | 0.001 (0.09) | 0.99 | 0.09 (0.09) | 0.34 | 0.11 (0.09) | 0.25 |
Discrimination | −0.22 (0.10) | 0.02 | −0.23 (0.09) | 0.01 | −0.33 (0.09) | 0.001 |
Stressful life events | −0.02 (0.09) | 0.79 | −0.06 (0.09) | 0.55 | −0.14 (0.09) | 0.13 |
Cultural beliefs/practices | 0.23 (0.11) | 0.02 | 0.08 (0.10) | 0.45 | 0.17 (0.09) | 0.08 |
Tribal history | 0.02 (0.10) | 0.84 | 0.26 (0.10) | 0.005 | 0.07 (0.09) | 0.43 |
Parent-Rated EF | Child-Rated EF | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Working Mem. | Inhibition | Cog. Flexibility | Working Mem. | Inhibition | Cog. Flexibility | |||||||
β (SE) | p | β (SE) | p | β (SE) | p | β (SE) | p | β (SE) | p | β (SE) | p | |
Neighborhood risk | −0.12 (0.13) | 0.33 | −0.03 (0.13) | 0.79 | −0.01 (0.13) | 0.91 | −0.18 (0.17) | 0.31 | −0.22 (0.15) | 0.14 | −0.39 (0.15) | 0.01 |
Discrimination | −0.26 (0.11) | 0.02 | −0.20 (0.11) | 0.09 | −0.33 (0.11) | 0.003 | 0.04 (0.15) | 0.81 | 0.19 (0.13) | 0.14 | 0.11 (0.14) | 0.41 |
Stressful life events | −0.05 (0.13) | 0.72 | −0.16 (0.13) | 0.20 | −0.21 (0.13) | 0.11 | −0.03 (0.19) | 0.87 | −0.01 (0.17) | 0.97 | 0.05 (0.18) | 0.78 |
Cultural beliefs/practices | 0.31 (0.12) | 0.01 | 0.19 (0.12) | 0.13 | 0.07 (0.12) | 0.57 | 0.16 (0.17) | 0.33 | 0.45 (0.13) | 0.001 | −0.03 (0.15) | 0.82 |
Tribal history | 0.01 (0.12) | 0.93 | 0.12 (0.12) | 0.30 | 0.06 (0.11) | 0.61 | 0.01 (0.16) | 0.97 | −0.08 (0.13) | 0.55 | 0.21 (0.14) | 0.12 |
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Merculief, A.; Tsethlikai, M.; Muniz, F. Applying an Indigenous Connectedness Framework to Examine Environmental Risk and Protective Factors for Urban American Indian Children’s Executive Function Development. Behav. Sci. 2024, 14, 1202. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14121202
Merculief A, Tsethlikai M, Muniz F. Applying an Indigenous Connectedness Framework to Examine Environmental Risk and Protective Factors for Urban American Indian Children’s Executive Function Development. Behavioral Sciences. 2024; 14(12):1202. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14121202
Chicago/Turabian StyleMerculief, Alexis, Monica Tsethlikai, and Felix Muniz. 2024. "Applying an Indigenous Connectedness Framework to Examine Environmental Risk and Protective Factors for Urban American Indian Children’s Executive Function Development" Behavioral Sciences 14, no. 12: 1202. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14121202
APA StyleMerculief, A., Tsethlikai, M., & Muniz, F. (2024). Applying an Indigenous Connectedness Framework to Examine Environmental Risk and Protective Factors for Urban American Indian Children’s Executive Function Development. Behavioral Sciences, 14(12), 1202. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14121202