The Impact of Mindful Learning on Subjective and Psychological Well-Being in Postgraduate Students
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Mindful Learning
1.2. The Relationship between Mindful Learning and Well-Being
2. Study 1
2.1. Design and Participants
2.2. Measures and Analysis
2.3. Results
2.3.1. Descriptive and Correlation Analyses
2.3.2. Regression Analysis
3. Study 2
3.1. Design and Participants
3.2. Measures
3.3. Intervention Procedure
3.4. Data Analysis
3.5. Results
3.5.1. The Development of Mindful Learning
3.5.2. The Development of SWB
3.5.3. The Development of PWB
3.5.4. The Impact of Mindful Learning on SWB and PWB
4. Discussion
Limitations and Future Directions
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Cronbach’s Alpha | Male (n = 80) | Female (n = 156) | t | Meditation Experience (n = 104) | No Meditation Experience (n = 132) | t | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | ||||
1.Mindful learning | 0.85 | 70.63 | 11.78 | 69.71 | 9.12 | 0.61 | 70.24 | 10.05 | 69.85 | 10.15 | 0.30 |
1.1 Learning methods | 0.72 | 14.48 | 3.06 | 14.07 | 2.26 | 1.04 | 14.16 | 2.53 | 14.24 | 2.60 | −0.23 |
1.2 Emotion regulation | 0.66 | 8.10 | 2.28 | 7.81 | 2.15 | 0.95 | 7.94 | 2.06 | 7.89 | 2.31 | 0.19 |
1.3 Awareness of planning | 0.66 | 13.19 | 3.01 | 13.02 | 2.33 | 0.44 | 13.16 | 2.47 | 13.01 | 2.67 | 0.46 |
1.4 Openness to experience | 0.68 | 21.64 | 3.99 | 21.79 | 3.52 | −0.30 | 21.77 | 3.91 | 21.71 | 3.49 | 0.12 |
1.5 Learning engagement | 0.60 | 13.23 | 2.99 | 13.02 | 2.38 | 0.53 | 13.20 | 2.50 | 13.00 | 2.68 | 0.59 |
2.Subjective well-being | |||||||||||
2.1 Life satisfaction | 0.84 | 4.21 | 1.38 | 4.05 | 1.15 | 0.87 | 4.18 | 1.29 | 4.05 | 1.18 | 0.76 |
2.2 Positive affect | 0.88 | 4.64 | 1.34 | 4.37 | 1.28 | 1.53 | 4.74 | 1.21 | 4.24 | 1.34 | 2.93 ** |
2.3 Negative affect | 0.86 | 3.11 | 1.34 | 3.21 | 1.18 | −0.57 | 3.24 | 1.28 | 3.12 | 1.20 | 0.74 |
3.Psychological well-being | 0.82 | 75.65 | 11.47 | 74.12 | 9.93 | 1.06 | 74.97 | 10.45 | 74.38 | 10.52 | 0.43 |
3.1 Autonomy | 0.36 | 12.23 | 2.32 | 11.18 | 2.09 | 3.50 ** | 11.71 | 2.20 | 11.39 | 2.24 | 1.09 |
3.2 Environmental mastery | 0.55 | 12.99 | 2.63 | 12.64 | 2.22 | 1.07 | 12.64 | 2.39 | 12.85 | 2.35 | −0.66 |
3.3 Self-acceptance | 0.49 | 11.68 | 2.59 | 11.13 | 2.37 | 1.61 | 11.44 | 2.42 | 11.22 | 2.49 | 0.69 |
3.4 Personal growth | 0.49 | 14.00 | 2.68 | 13.99 | 2.24 | 0.02 | 14.02 | 2.24 | 13.98 | 2.51 | 0.13 |
3.5 Positive relations | 0.55 | 11.70 | 3.05 | 12.18 | 2.67 | −1.24 | 12.26 | 2.85 | 11.83 | 2.77 | 1.18 |
3.6 Purpose in life | 0.52 | 13.06 | 2.92 | 12.99 | 2.72 | 0.18 | 12.89 | 2.76 | 13.11 | 2.81 | −0.60 |
1 | 1.1 | 1.2 | 1.3 | 1.4 | 1.5 | 2.1 | 2.2 | 2.3 | 3 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1.Mindful learning | ||||||||||
1.1 Learning methods | 0.72 ** | |||||||||
1.2 Emotion regulation | 0.60 ** | 0.27 ** | ||||||||
1.3 Awareness of planning | 0.80 ** | 0.47 ** | 0.55 ** | |||||||
1.4 Openness to experience | 0.81 ** | 0.50 ** | 0.29 ** | 0.49 ** | ||||||
1.5 Learning engagement | 0.73 ** | 0.40 ** | 0.24 ** | 0.49 ** | 0.52 ** | |||||
2.Subjective well-being | ||||||||||
2.1 Life satisfaction | 0.40 ** | 0.25 ** | 0.39 ** | 0.34 ** | 0.29 ** | 0.24 ** | ||||
2.2 Positive affect | 0.42 ** | 0.35 ** | 0.26 ** | 0.33 ** | 0.31 ** | 0.30 ** | 0.54 ** | |||
2.3 Negative affect | −0.28 ** | −0.29 ** | −0.09 | −0.20 ** | −0.23 ** | −0.19 ** | −0.27 ** | −0.38 ** | ||
3.Psychological well-being | 0.49 ** | 0.47 ** | 0.23 ** | 0.38 ** | 0.39 ** | 0.31 ** | 0.31 ** | 0.40 ** | −0.41 ** | |
Mean | 70.02 | 14.21 | 7.91 | 13.08 | 21.74 | 13.09 | 4.11 | 4.46 | 74.64 | 11.53 |
SD | 10.09 | 2.56 | 2.20 | 2.58 | 3.68 | 2.60 | 1.23 | 1.30 | 10.47 | 2.22 |
(a) | |||||||||
Outcome Variable | Predictor Variable | B | SE | β | F | R² | f² | Adjusted R² | t |
PWB | 42.742 | 9.283 | 18.217 *** | 0.240 | 0.32 | 0.227 | 4.604 *** | ||
Mindful learning | 0.502 | 0.060 | 0.484 | 8.423 *** | |||||
Gender | −1.166 | 1.291 | −0.053 | −0.903 | |||||
Meditation experience | −0.564 | 1.224 | −0.027 | −0.461 | |||||
Age | −0.020 | 0.308 | −0.004 | −0.064 | |||||
PWB | 41.818 | 9.221 | 10.570 *** | 0.271 | 0.37 | 0.246 | 4.535 *** | ||
Learning methods | 1.278 | 0.283 | 0.313 | 4.520 *** | |||||
Emotion regulation | 0.101 | 0.325 | 0.021 | 0.309 | |||||
Awareness of planning | 0.553 | 0.327 | 0.136 | 1.689 | |||||
Openness to experience | 0.382 | 0.210 | 0.134 | 1.823 | |||||
Learning engagement | 0.163 | 0.283 | 0.040 | 0.575 | |||||
Gender | −1.042 | 1.282 | −0.047 | −0.813 | |||||
Meditation experience | −0.701 | 1.210 | −0.033 | −0.580 | |||||
Age | −0.041 | 0.306 | −0.008 | −0.135 | |||||
(b) | |||||||||
Outcome Variable | Predictor Variable | B | SE | β | F | R² | f² | Adjusted R² | t |
Life satisfaction | −0.239 | 1.136 | 12.03 *** | 0.17 | 0.21 | 0.16 | −0.210 | ||
Mindful learning | 0.048 | 0.007 | 0.396 | 6.605 *** | |||||
Gender | −0.104 | 0.158 | −0.040 | −0.658 | |||||
Meditation experience | −0.109 | 0.150 | −0.044 | −0.726 | |||||
Age | 0.055 | 0.038 | 0.088 | 1.465 | |||||
Positive affect | 0.348 | 1.161 | 17.41 *** | 0.23 | 0.30 | 0.22 | 0.299 | ||
Mindful learning | 0.053 | 0.007 | 0.410 | 7.094 *** | |||||
Gender | −0.272 | 0.161 | −0.099 | −1.686 | |||||
Meditation experience | −0.498 | 0.153 | −0.190 | −3.257 ** | |||||
Age | 0.069 | 0.039 | 0.104 | 1.790 | |||||
Negative affect | 5.630 | 1.205 | 4.93 ** | 0.08 | 0.09 | 0.06 | 4.672 *** | ||
Mindful learning | −0.034 | 0.008 | −0.275 | −4.348 *** | |||||
Gender | 0.047 | 0.168 | 0.018 | 0.283 | |||||
Meditation experience | −0.126 | 0.159 | −0.051 | −0.795 | |||||
Age | 0.001 | 0.040 | 0.002 | 0.024 | |||||
Life satisfaction | 0.019 | 1.130 | 7.31 *** | 0.21 | 0.27 | 0.18 | 0.017 | ||
Learning methods | 0.027 | 0.035 | 0.057 | 0.791 | |||||
Emotion regulation | 0.156 | 0.040 | 0.280 | 3.921 *** | |||||
Awareness of planning | 0.032 | 0.040 | 0.067 | 0.792 | |||||
Openness to experience | 0.043 | 0.026 | 0.128 | 1.664 | |||||
Learning engagement | 0.020 | 0.035 | 0.043 | 0.589 | |||||
Gender | −0.092 | 0.157 | −0.035 | −0.584 | |||||
Meditation experience | −0.109 | 0.148 | −0.044 | −0.733 | |||||
Age | 0.049 | 0.037 | 0.079 | 1.319 | |||||
Positive affect | 0.318 | 1.173 | 8.87 *** | 0.24 | 0.32 | 0.21 | 0.271 | ||
Learning methods | 0.099 | 0.036 | 0.195 | 2.760 ** | |||||
Emotion regulation | 0.063 | 0.041 | 0.107 | 1.532 | |||||
Awareness of planning | 0.034 | 0.042 | 0.068 | 0.822 | |||||
Openness to experience | 0.033 | 0.027 | 0.092 | 1.224 | |||||
Learning engagement | 0.053 | 0.036 | 0.107 | 1.484 | |||||
Gender | −0.252 | 0.163 | −0.092 | −1.547 | |||||
Meditation experience | −0.503 | 0.154 | −0.192 | −3.267 ** | |||||
Age | 0.066 | 0.039 | 0.100 | 1.710 | |||||
Negative affect | 5.801 | 1.208 | 3.15 ** | 0.10 | 0.11 | 0.07 | 4.800 *** | ||
Learning methods | −0.105 | 0.037 | −0.217 | −2.829 ** | |||||
Emotion regulation | 0.018 | 0.043 | 0.032 | 0.424 | |||||
Awareness of planning | −0.026 | 0.043 | −0.053 | −0.597 | |||||
Openness to experience | −0.026 | 0.027 | −0.078 | −0.958 | |||||
Learning engagement | −0.021 | 0.037 | −0.044 | −0.561 | |||||
Gender | 0.038 | 0.168 | 0.015 | 0.226 | |||||
Meditation experience | −0.115 | 0.159 | −0.046 | −0.724 | |||||
Age | 0.001 | 0.040 | 0.001 | 0.019 |
Gender | Experimental Group | Active Control Group | Blank Control Group | F | p | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n = 15 | Proportion | n = 15 | Proportion | n = 18 | Proportion | |||
Male | 6 | 40.00% | 7 | 46.67% | 6 | 33.33% | 0.290 | 0.750 |
Female | 9 | 60.00% | 8 | 53.33% | 12 | 66.67% |
Cronbach’s α in Pre-Test | Cronbach’s α in Post-Test | |
---|---|---|
Mindful learning | 0.856 | 0.880 |
Life satisfaction | 0.784 | 0.842 |
Positive affect | 0.896 | 0.903 |
Negative affect | 0.799 | 0.868 |
Psychological well-being | 0.668 | 0.648 |
Session | Main Activities | Aims |
---|---|---|
Session 1 (1 h) | ·Getting to know each other and building group spirit ·Introducing the concept of mindful learning ·Explaining mindfulness and experiencing being in the present ·Exploring students’ values, recourses, reasons, and motivation in learning | ·Foster a sense of agency in learning ·Enhance intrinsic motivation in learning |
Session 2 (1 h) | ·Preparing the attitudes of mindfulness practice ·Experiencing mindful breathing and mindful eating ·Introducing 4D cycle in appreciative inquiry and sharing in pairs | ·Develop self-awareness ·Deepen reflexivity ·Cultivate self-management and self-discipline |
Session 3 (1 h) | ·Experiencing mindful body scanning ·Discussing narrative psychology ·Personal narrative: Writing a letter for yourself in 10 years ·Narrative in pairs: Reconstruction of stories ·Group narrative: A journey to the West | ·Develop learning engagement ·Cultivate a sense of goal, aspiration, and hope ·Develop self-directed and collaborative learning ability |
Session 4 (1 h) | ·Experiencing loving-kindness meditation on learning ·Exploring generative moments in learning ·Revealing character strengths ·Reviewing, sharing, and reflecting on the coaching ·Self-evaluation of growth as a learner | ·Foster self-knowledge and self-awareness ·Cultivate the ability of emotion regulation in learning ·Track the progress of learners’ identities |
Assignment | Daily mindfulness practice (5–10 min) | ·Foster reflexivity, cultivate openness to experience, and non-judgmental attitudes ·Develop learning attention in the present moment |
Session | Main Activities | Aims |
---|---|---|
Session 1 (1 h) | ·Getting to know each other and building group spirit ·Introducing relaxation training and practicing abdominal breathing ·Game: Grabbing Fingers; Nerve Conduction | ·Form a harmonious group atmosphere ·Help participants relax |
Session 2 (1 h) | ·Reviewing abdominal breathing; practicing progressive muscle relaxation training ·Game: Team up for relay drawing ·Watching short cartoon | ·Develop a sense of cooperation ·Ease participants’ moods |
Session 3 (1 h) | ·Practicing count-breathing relaxation and eye relaxation ·Game: Numbering off without communication; leaf drawing | ·Establish trust with peers ·Relieve anxiety |
Session 4 (1 h) | ·Practicing pure release relaxation ·Game: Team up for building model with A4 paper ·Reviewing, sharing, and ending | ·Promote communication with others ·Track the progress of participants’ relaxation experiences |
Assignment | Daily relaxation practice (5–10 min) | ·Develop a sense of relaxation and relieve anxiety |
Experimental Group (n = 15) | Active Control Group (n = 15) | Blank Control Group (n = 18) | Time × Group | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
T1 | T2 | T1 | T2 | T1 | T2 | F | p | η2 | |
Mindful learning | 68.93 ± 9.77 | 72.87 ± 9.65 | 65.53 ± 11.40 | 66.00 ± 11.72 | 70.17 ± 9.51 | 67.89 ± 9.23 | 5.049 | 0.011 | 0.194 |
Life satisfaction | 3.92 ± 1.10 | 4.20 ± 1.03 | 3.76 ± 1.40 | 3.77 ± 1.37 | 4.13 ± 0.71 | 4.09 ± 0.87 | 0.905 | 0.412 | 0.041 |
Positive affect | 3.86 ± 1.27 | 4.57 ± 1.21 | 3.89 ± 1.33 | 3.97 ± 1.37 | 4.03 ± 1.26 | 4.10 ± 1.28 | 3.072 | 0.057 | 0.128 |
Negative affect | 3.74 ± 0.89 | 3.58 ± 0.92 | 3.33 ± 1.11 | 3.49 ± 1.28 | 3.00 ± 0.88 | 3.07 ± 1.03 | 0.702 | 0.501 | 0.032 |
PWB | 73.00 ± 8.72 | 75.80 ± 7.68 | 78.20 ± 13.69 | 72.40 ± 12.72 | 80.50 ± 8.30 | 75.27 ± 10.10 | 6.566 | 0.003 | 0.238 |
1 | 1.1 | 1.2 | 1.3 | 1.4 | 1.5 | 2.1 | 2.2 | 2.3 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. ΔMindful learning | |||||||||
1.1 Δ Learning methods | 0.61 * | ||||||||
1.2 Δ Emotion regulation | 0.61 * | 0.19 | |||||||
1.3 Δ Awareness of planning | 0.57 * | 0.15 | 0.36 | ||||||
1.4 Δ Openness to experience | 0.70 ** | 0.63 * | 0.26 | −0.03 | |||||
1.5 Δ Learning engagement | 0.46 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.36 | 0.11 | ||||
2. ΔSubjective well-being | |||||||||
2.1 Δ Life satisfaction | −0.04 | 0.06 | −0.42 | −0.10 | −0.11 | 0.67 ** | |||
2.2 Δ Positive affect | 0.55 * | 0.46 | 0.23 | −0.15 | 0.63 * | 0.14 | 0.09 | ||
2.3 Δ Negative affect | −0.08 | −0.43 | −0.09 | 0.40 | −0.21 | 0.10 | −0.27 | −0.46 | |
3.ΔPsychological well-being | 0.72 ** | 0.57 * | 0.35 | 0.17 | 0.69 ** | 0.32 | 0.20 | 0.47 | −0.47 |
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Wang, Q.; Zhang, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Chen, T. The Impact of Mindful Learning on Subjective and Psychological Well-Being in Postgraduate Students. Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 1009. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13121009
Wang Q, Zhang Y, Zhang Y, Chen T. The Impact of Mindful Learning on Subjective and Psychological Well-Being in Postgraduate Students. Behavioral Sciences. 2023; 13(12):1009. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13121009
Chicago/Turabian StyleWang, Qing, Yuanyuan Zhang, Ying Zhang, and Tingwei Chen. 2023. "The Impact of Mindful Learning on Subjective and Psychological Well-Being in Postgraduate Students" Behavioral Sciences 13, no. 12: 1009. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13121009
APA StyleWang, Q., Zhang, Y., Zhang, Y., & Chen, T. (2023). The Impact of Mindful Learning on Subjective and Psychological Well-Being in Postgraduate Students. Behavioral Sciences, 13(12), 1009. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13121009