The Rise of Heatstroke as a Method of Depopulating Pigs and Poultry: Implications for the US Veterinary Profession
Abstract
:Simple Summary
Abstract
1. Introduction
1.1. Depopulation Defined
1.2. Historical Factors Leading to the Development of Depopulation Methods
1.3. Recent Depopulations
2. Description of Heatstroke-Based Depopulation Methods
2.1. Pathophysiology of Heatstroke
2.2. VSD + TH and Burn Injuries
2.3. Affective States and Animal Welfare Implications of VSD Methods
3. Use of Heatstroke-Based Depopulation Methods
3.1. Rationale for Use of Heatstroke-Based Methods
3.2. Rising Use of Heatstroke-Based Methods
3.2.1. Pigs
3.2.2. Poultry
4. Other Methods of Depopulation
5. The Veterinary Profession’s Ethical Responsibilities Concerning Farm Animal Depopulations
5.1. Specific Opportunities for Veterinary Leadership
5.1.1. Revise the AVMA Guidelines for the Depopulation of Animals
5.1.2. Identify Factors That Increase Animals’ Vulnerability during Emergencies
5.1.3. Engagement with Governmental Agencies and Legislators
6. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Depopulation Method and Recommended References Containing More Detailed Information | Relevant Species | Regulatory Status [181,182,183,184,185] | Time to LOC † | Intended Mechanism of Killing | Potential Negative Affective States (Including during Handling and Restraint) | Feasibility/Practical Constraints | Biosecurity Considerations | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
US (AVMA) * | UK | EU | ||||||||
Gunshot (free bullet), Captive bolt [41,53,109,123,186,187,188,189,190,191] | Pigs ‡ | Preferred | Allowed | Allowed | Massive diffuse brain damage, via primary injuries (e.g., direct tissue destruction, hemorrhage) and secondary injuries (e.g., cerebral edema). | Anxiety Fear Frustration Helplessness Pain Panic | Ammunition and cartridge supply and storage Interchangeable bolt heads (captive bolts) Requires animal handling/restraint Human safety considerations Specialist training Regular firearm maintenance High staffing requirement Prolonged operational time | Often results in penetrating wound to head, external loss of blood and brain tissue Close human–animal contact Moving equipment between sites | ||
Electrocution [21,41,53,109,123,192,193,194,195,196,197,198,199,200,201,202,203,204,205,206] | Pigs | Preferred | Allowed | Allowed | Electrocution (one-step head-to-body electrocution or two step electrocution process) | Anxiety Fear Frustration Helplessness Pain Panic | Variable animal handling/restraint Human safety considerations Specialist training Specialized equipment Regular equipment maintenance Variable staffing requirements Variable operational time | With exception of electrocution trailer, close human–animal contact required Moving equipment between sites Movement of sick/injured animals | ||
Inhaled agents (via mobile containerized gassing units, trailers or modified dumpsters) [53,107,123,207,208,209,210,211,212,213,214,215,216,217,218,219,220,221,222,223,224] | Pigs and Poultry | Preferred | Allowed (only CO2 for pigs) | Allowed (only CO2 for pigs) | Hypercapnic hypoxia/anoxia (CO2, CO2 + N2 or CO2 + Ar); Hypoxia/anoxia (N2 or Ar) | Anxiety Disorientation Dyspnea Fear Frustration Helplessness Nausea Pain Panic | Gas supplies Specialist training Specialist equipment Requires animal handling Human safety considerations Variable staffing requirements Prolonged operational time for the largest facilities | Close human–animal contact required Movement of animals to units Moving equipment between sites | ||
Inhaled agents (via whole house gassing) [52,53,54,107,127,207,208,209,213,214,215,216,217,218,225,226,227,228,229,230] | Poultry | Preferred | Allowed | Allowed | Hypercapnic hypoxia | Anxiety Disorientation Dyspnea Fear Frustration Helplessness Nausea Pain Panic | Gas supplies Specialist equipment Specialist training Human safety considerations Structures may need to be modified to prevent air leakage | No live animal transport or handling required Moving equipment between sites | ||
High-expansion § N2-filled foam [53,107,123,231,232,233,234,235,236,237,238,239,240] | Pigs and Poultry | Not mentioned | Allowed for poultry | Allowed for poultry | The bubbles act as a delivery mechanism for the gas, resulting in displacement of air around the animals. As the bubbles pop, the animal is exposed to 100% N2, resulting in death by hypoxia/anoxia. | Anxiety Disorientation Dyspnea Fear Frustration Helplessness Pain Panic | Water and foam concentrate supplies Gas supplies Specialist equipment Specialist training Minimal animal handling Human safety considerations Shed/facility infrastructure limitations on successful operation | No live animal transport or handling required Moving equipment between sites Application in whole-house, in transport vehicles or temporary penning areas | ||
Low- or medium-expansion § foam (filled with air or inhaled agent, e.g., CO2, Ar, or N2) Includes both water-based foam and compressed air foam [53,59,107,123,231,241,242,243,244,245,246,247,248,249,250] | Pigs and Poultry | Air-filled: preferred/PICC for poultry | Not allowed | Not allowed | The foam is inhaled by the animal resulting in occlusion of airways leading to hypoxia; similar to drowning. With inhaled agent-filled foam, bubble breakdown leads to exposure to gas leading to hypoxia/anoxia +/− hypercapnia | Anxiety Disorientation Dyspnea Fear Frustration Helplessness Nausea Pain Panic | Water and foam concentrate +/− Gas supplies Specialist equipment Specialist training Minimal animal handling and/or restraint Human safety considerations Shed/facility infrastructure limits successful operation | Minimal handling required. Moving equipment between sites | ||
Sodium Nitrite [251,252,253,254,255,256] | Pigs | PICC | Not allowed | Not allowed | Hypoxemia due to methemoglobinemia | Anxiety Debility Dyspnea (prolonged) Disorientation Fear Frustration Hunger Nausea Pain | Specific storage requirements Short expiration date Poor palatability—compounded formulation or gavaging required Pigs must be trained in advanced for voluntary ingestion Prior food deprivation required Specialist training Greater than 50% of animals have multiple bouts of vomiting Sick pigs may be inappetent, requiring gavage feeding | No live animal transport or handling required for spontaneous ingestion. Close human–animal contact required for gavage administration. Vomitus likely to be present | ||
VSD + H VSD + TH [1,2,49,50,51,55,106,134,257] | Pigs and Poultry | PICC | Not allowed | Not allowed | Fatal heatstroke/ hyperthermia | Anxiety Debility Dyspnea Disorientation Exhaustion Fear Frustration Helplessness Nausea Malaise Overheating Pain Panic Thirst | Access to equipment (heaters, steam generators) Human safety considerations Specialist training Structure of facility may limit successful operation Retrofitting of barns required (pigs) Minimal live animal handling (poultry) Handling and transport required for pigs Variable operational time | Moving equipment between sites Transport of live pigs to retrofitted barns Vomitus, diarrhea, and respiratory secretions likely to be present | ||
Controlled demolition [no research could be located] | Poultry | PICC | Not allowed | Not allowed | Trauma Hemorrhage Dehydration Starvation Suffocation Mechanical Asphyxia | Anxiety Chilling Disorientation Dyspnea Fear Frustration Helplessness Hunger Overheating Pain Panic Thirst | Access to demolition equipment Specialist training Cannot be used for caged poultry No live animal handling Human safety considerations High risk of <100% mortality and prolonged time to LOC for some animals Difficult/impossible to check for and euthanize survivors | No live animal transport or handling Difficulty removing carcasses Potential for scavengers to access carcasses Potential environmental contamination Moving equipment between sites |
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Location of Farm | Number of Birds on Farm | Time Needed to Depopulate * | Method(s) Used |
---|---|---|---|
Iowa | 5,347,500 | 7 days | VSD + Heat CO2 gassing |
Iowa | 5,011,700 | 16 days | VSD + Heat CO2 gassing |
Wisconsin | 2,750,700 | 16 days | VSD + Heat |
Nebraska | 2,118,000 | 18 days | VSD + Heat CO2 gassing |
Colorado | 1,936,800 | 17 days | VSD + Heat CO2 gassing |
Nebraska | 1,746,900 | 10 days | VSD + Heat CO2 gassing |
Utah | 1,501,200 | 18 days | VSD + Heat CO2 gassing |
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Reyes-Illg, G.; Martin, J.E.; Mani, I.; Reynolds, J.; Kipperman, B. The Rise of Heatstroke as a Method of Depopulating Pigs and Poultry: Implications for the US Veterinary Profession. Animals 2023, 13, 140. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13010140
Reyes-Illg G, Martin JE, Mani I, Reynolds J, Kipperman B. The Rise of Heatstroke as a Method of Depopulating Pigs and Poultry: Implications for the US Veterinary Profession. Animals. 2023; 13(1):140. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13010140
Chicago/Turabian StyleReyes-Illg, Gwendolen, Jessica E. Martin, Indu Mani, James Reynolds, and Barry Kipperman. 2023. "The Rise of Heatstroke as a Method of Depopulating Pigs and Poultry: Implications for the US Veterinary Profession" Animals 13, no. 1: 140. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13010140