The Gut Microbiome of Children during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. The Gut Microbiome in Different Presentations of COVID-19 in Children
2.1. Asymptomatic and Symptomatic Children with COVID-19
Title | Author, Location, Date Published | Patients | Ages | α-Diversity | β-Diversity | Enriched Bacteria | Reduced Bacteria | Key Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Progressive deterioration of the upper respiratory tract and the gut microbiomes in children during the early infection stages of COVID-19 [39] | Xu R et al. Shanghai, China September 2021 | 9 COVID-19, 9 healthy controls | 7 months–12 years | Significant between some gut clusters and healthy mix of upper respiratory and gut community | N/A | COVID-19 *: Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, Pseudomonas, Herbaspirillum, Burkholderia, Pseudomonas veronii, Streptococcus | N/A |
|
Gut microbiota changes are detected in asymptomatic very young children with SARS-CoV-2 infection [30] | Nashed L et al. Falls Church, VA, USA February 2022 | 595 participants (13 participants had COVID-19, 26 matched controls) | Newborn–2 years | Not significant | Not significant | N/A | COVID-19 *: Bifidobacterium bifidum, Veillonella dispar, Enterobacter cloacae, Akkermansia muciniphila, Eubacterium limosum, Enterocloster clostridioformis, Blautia hominis |
|
Intestinal microbiota composition of children with infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and multisystem inflammatory syndrome (MIS-C) [16] | Suskun C et al. Eskisehir, Turkey May 2022 | 20 COVID-19, 25 MIS-C, 19 healthy controls | 5–11 years | Significant between MIS-C and controls | Significant between MIS-C and controls | COVID-19 *: Clostridium, Bacteroides coprophilus, Eubacterium dolichum, Bacteroides uniformis, Clostridium piliforme COVID-19 ***: Bacteroides coprophilus, Bifidobacterium adolescentis, Dorea formicigenerans, Ruminococcus albus, Clostridium piliforme MIS-C *: Bacteroides, Eggerthella, Prevotella Bacteroides uniformis, Bacteroides plebeius, Clostridium ramosum, Eubacterium dolichum, Eggerthella lenta, Bacillus thermoaamylovorans, Prevotella tannerae, and Bacteroides coprophilus MIS-C **: Bacteroides, Eggerthella, Clostridium, Bacteroides uniformis, Bacillus thermoaamylovorans, Eubacterium dolichum | COVID-19 and MIS-C *: Faecalibacterium prausnitzii COVID-19 *: Eubacterium, Roseburia, Lachnospiraceae MIS-C **: Firmicutes |
|
The Relationship between pediatric gut microbiota and SARS-CoV-2 infection [38] | Romani L et al. Rome, Italy July 2022 | 88 suspected COVID-19, 95 healthy controls | 8 days–17 years | Significant between COVID-19 and controls | Significant between COVID-19 and controls | COVID-19 *: Faecalibacterium, Fusobacterium, Neisseria MIS-C *: Veillonella, Clostridium, Dialister, Ruminococcus, Streptococcus | COVID-19 *: Bifidobacterium, Blautia, Ruminococcus, Collinsella, Coprococcus, Eggerthella, Akkermansia MIS-C *: Bifidobacterium, Blautia, Granulicatella, Prevotella |
|
2.2. Pregnancy and Neonates
2.3. Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C)
2.4. Long-Term Health Consequences
2.5. The Gut Microbiome and Different Variants of COVID-19
2.6. COVID-19 Comorbidities Associated with Dysbiosis Imbalances in the Microbiome
3. Mechanistic Insights into the Role of the of Gut Microbiome in Children with COVID-19
3.1. The Developing Microbiota in Children vs. the Mature Microbiota in Adults
3.2. Gut Microbiota, Intestinal Inflammation, and Gut Barrier Integrity
3.3. Interaction between ACE2 and Gut Microbiota in COVID-19 Infection
3.4. Gut Microbiota and the Immune Response through Endogenous Retroviruses (ERVs)
4. Vaccines and the Microbiome
5. Probiotics and Other Microbial Therapeutics in COVID-19
6. Effect of Pandemic as a Whole on the Gut Microbiome (i.e., the Hygiene Hypothesis)
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Title | Author, Location, Date Published | Patients | Ages | Oral Therapeutic | Duration | Outcome |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Oral Bacteriotherapy in Patients with COVID-19: A Retrospective Cohort Study [191] | Ceccarelli G et al. Rome, Italy January 2021 | 200 hospitalized COVID-19 patients (n = 88 bacteriotherapy, 112 untreated) | ≥18 years | Bacteriotherapy: Streptococcus thermophilus DSM 32245, Bifidobacterium lactis DSM 32246, Bifidobacterium lactis DSM 32247, Lactobacillus acidophilus DSM 32241, Lactobacillus helveticus DSM 32242, Lactobacillus paracasei DSM 32243, Lactobacillus plantarum DSM 32244, Lactobacillus brevis DSM 27961 | Three times daily Duration not specified |
|
Efficacy of a Probiotic Consisting of Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus PDV 1705, Bifidobacterium bifidum PDV 0903, Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis PDV 1911, and Bifidobacterium longum subsp. longum PDV 2301 in the Treatment of Hospitalized Patients with COVID-19: a Randomized Controlled Trial [192] | Ivashkin V et al. Moscow, Russia October 2021 | 200 hospitalized COVID-19 patients (n = 99 probiotic, 101 nonprobiotic) | 18–75 years | Probiotic: Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus PDV 1705, Bifidobacterium bifidum PDV 0903, Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis PDV 1911, Bifidobacterium longum subsp. longum PDV 2301 | Three times daily For up to 14 days ending sooner if discharged or dead |
|
Oral booster probiotic bifidobacteria in SARS-CoV-2 patients [193] | Bozkurt H et al. Istanbul, Turkey November 2021 | 44 hospitalized COVID-19 patients (n = 20 probiotic, 24 nonprobiotic) | ≥18 years | Probiotic: Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. Lactis BB-12 | Daily For 3 days |
|
Probiotic improves symptomatic and viral clearance in COVID-19 outpatients: a randomized, quadruple-blinded, placebo-controlled trial [194] | Gutiérrez-Castrellón et al. Mexico City, Mexico January 2022 | 293 symptomatic COVID-19 patients (n = 147 probiotic, 146 placebo) | 18–60 years | Probiotic: Lactiplantibacillus plantarum stains KABP022, KABP023 and KABP033, Pediococcus acidilactici strain KABP021 | Daily For 30 days |
|
Gut microbiota-derived synbiotic formula (SIM01) as a novel adjuvant therapy for COVID-19: An open-label pilot study [195] | Zhang L et al. Hong Kong, China March 2022 | 55 COVID-19 hospitalized patients (n = 25 probiotic, 30 nonprobiotic) | ≥18 years | Synbiotic: Bifidobacterium adolescentis, Bifidobacterium bifidum, Bifidobacterium longum, galactooligosaccharides, xylooligosaccharide, resistant dextrin | Twice daily For 28 days |
|
COVID-19 Pneumonia and Gut Inflammation: The Role of a Mix of Three Probiotic Strains in Reducing Inflammatory Markers and Need for Oxygen Support [196] | Saviano A et al. Rome, Italy July 2022 | 80 hospitalized COVID-19 patients with interstitial pneumonia (n = 40 probiotic, 40 nonprobiotic) | ≥18 years | Probiotic: Bifidobacterium lactis LA 304, Lactobacillus salivarius LA 302, Lactobacillus acidophilus LA 201 | Twice daily For 10 days |
|
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Bacorn, M.; Romero-Soto, H.N.; Levy, S.; Chen, Q.; Hourigan, S.K. The Gut Microbiome of Children during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Microorganisms 2022, 10, 2460. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10122460
Bacorn M, Romero-Soto HN, Levy S, Chen Q, Hourigan SK. The Gut Microbiome of Children during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Microorganisms. 2022; 10(12):2460. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10122460
Chicago/Turabian StyleBacorn, Mickayla, Hector N. Romero-Soto, Shira Levy, Qing Chen, and Suchitra K. Hourigan. 2022. "The Gut Microbiome of Children during the COVID-19 Pandemic" Microorganisms 10, no. 12: 2460. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10122460