How Debt and Attainment Relate through the GPA of Non-White College Students
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- In what way do student loans relate to the GPA of non-white four-year college students?
- In what way do student loans relate to the attainment of non-white four-year college students, and does the association between student loans and attainment function through GPA?
2. Theoretical Background
2.1. Non-White Students and Loans
2.2. Conceptual Framework
3. Methodology
3.1. Data
3.2. Variables
3.3. Methods
4. Limitations
5. Results
5.1. Descriptive Statistics
5.2. Associations with GPA
5.3. Associations with Attainment
6. Discussion
7. Conclusions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Covariates | 95% CI for OR | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B | SE | p | OR | LL | UL | |
Sex | −0.331 | 0.135 | * | 0.718 | 0.551 | 0.937 |
Age | −0.372 | 0.258 | 0.149 | ___ | ___ | ___ |
Race/ethnicity | ||||||
African American | 1.022 | 0.417 | * | 20.779 | 10.228 | 6.290 |
Hispanic/Latino | 1.034 | 0.418 | * | 20.812 | 10.240 | 6.379 |
Asian | 0.819 | 0.464 | 0.077 | ___ | ___ | ___ |
Multiracial | 0.818 | 0.445 | 0.066 | ___ | ___ | ___ |
First-generation status | −0.453 | 0.161 | ** | 0.636 | 0.464 | 0.872 |
Having dependents | −0.567 | 0.204 | ** | 0.567 | 0.380 | 0.846 |
Family income | ||||||
High income | −0.001 | 0.258 | 0.998 | ___ | ___ | ___ |
Middle income | 0.216 | 0.172 | 0.207 | ___ | ___ | ___ |
English as a primary language | −0.129 | 0.174 | 0.458 | ___ | ___ | ___ |
Citizenship | −0.552 | 0.258 | * | 0.576 | 0.347 | 0.955 |
Graduate degree expected | 0.335 | 0.137 | * | 1.398 | 1.069 | 1.829 |
Dependency status | −0.096 | 0.236 | 0.684 | ___ | ___ | ___ |
Delayed enrollment | −0.156 | 0.091 | 0.087 | ___ | ___ | ___ |
Enrollment intensity | 0.287 | 0.155 | 0.065 | ___ | ___ | ___ |
Academic/social integration quality | 0.270 | 0.193 | 0.162 | ___ | ___ | ___ |
Pell grant status | 0.088 | 0.300 | 0.769 | ___ | ___ | ___ |
Hours worked | −0.056 | 0.016 | *** | 0.946 | 0.918 | 0.975 |
Institutional control | ||||||
Public | 0.239 | 0.244 | 0.326 | ___ | ___ | ___ |
Private nonprofit | 0.301 | 0.235 | 0.199 | ___ | ___ | ___ |
Institutional selectivity | ||||||
Highly selective | 1.811 | 0.260 | *** | 6.117 | 3.673 | 1.196 |
Moderately selective | 1.372 | 0.226 | *** | 3.943 | 2.532 | 6.135 |
Minimally selective | 0.474 | 0.196 | * | 1.606 | 1.095 | 2.356 |
Interaction effects | ||||||
Loan status * academic/social integration quality | −0.097 | 0.223 | 0.664 | ___ | ___ | ___ |
Loan status * Pell grant status | −0.461 | 0.318 | 0.147 | ___ | ___ | ___ |
Loan status * work | 0.029 | 0.018 | 0.102 | ___ | ___ | ___ |
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Variables | Coding and Operationalizations |
---|---|
Attainment | Binary: 0 for no (still enrolling without bachelor’s degree completion) and 1 for yes (either enrolling or not enrolling with bachelor’s degree completion) |
GPA | Continuous (on a range of 0 to 4.00) |
Loan status | Binary: 0 for no and 1 for yes |
Debt level | 1 for high debt (>USD 7000), 2 for medium debt (≥USD 3000 but ≤USD 7000), and 3 for low debt (<USD 3000) |
Background | |
Sex | Binary: 0 for female and 1 for male |
Age | Binary: 0 indicates under 20, and 1 indicates 20 or older |
Race/ethnicity | Categorical: 1 for African American, 2 for Hispanic/Latino, 3 for Asian, 4 for multiracial, and 5 for others (Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islanders, American Indian, and Alaska Native) |
First-generation status | Binary: 0 for no and 1 for yes |
Having dependents | Binary: 0 for no and 1 for yes |
Family income | Categorical: total household income for financially dependent and independent students split into three levels: 1 for high income (>USD 60,000), 2 for middle income (≥USD 32,000 but ≤USD 60,000), and 3 for low income (<USD 32,000) |
English as primary language | Binary: 0 for English and other languages equally spoken and for only other languages spoken as the primary language and 1 for English as the primary language |
Citizenship | Binary: 0 for resident aliens and 1 for citizens |
Graduate degree expected | Binary: 0 for no and 1 for yes |
College experiences | |
Dependency status | Binary: 0 for independents and 1 for dependents |
Delayed enrollment | Continuous (number of years between high school completion and college entry) |
Enrollment intensity | Binary: 0 for part time/mixed and 1 for full time |
Academic/social integration quality | Continuous (weighted mean score for the quality of interaction with peers, faculty, and studies, using a range of 1 to 5.00) |
Pell grant status | Binary: 0 for no and 1 for yes |
Hours worked per week | Continuous |
Institutional factors | |
Control | Categorical: 1 for public, 2 for private nonprofit, and 3 for private for-profit |
Selectivity | Categorical: 1 for highly selective, 2 for moderately selective, 3 for minimally selective, and 4 for open admission |
Interaction effects | Loan status * academic/social integration quality, loan status * work, loan status * Pell grant status |
Variables | Unweighted Count | Weighted Percentage (SE) | Mean (SE) |
---|---|---|---|
Attainment | |||
No | 860 | 52 (1.7) | |
Yes | 640 | 48 | |
GPA | 1500 | 2.955 (0.020) | |
Loan status | |||
No | 440 | 33 (1.6) | |
Yes | 1060 | 67 | |
Debt level | |||
High debt | 440 | 25 (1.4) | |
Medium debt | 520 | 36 (1.6) | |
Low debt | 540 | 39 (1.7) | |
Sex | |||
Female | 890 | 59 (1.7) | |
Male | 610 | 41 | |
Age | |||
Under 20 | 1120 | 82 (1.4) | |
20 or above | 380 | 18 | |
Race/ethnicity | |||
African American | 530 | 33 (1.6) | |
Hispanic/Latino | 600 | 41 (1.7) | |
Asian | 180 | 14 (1.1) | |
Multiracial | 150 | 10 (0.9) | |
Others | 40 | 2.0 (0.5) | |
First-generation status | |||
No | 1130 | 76 (1.5) | |
Yes | 370 | 24 | |
Having dependents | |||
No | 1160 | 82 (1.4) | |
Yes | 340 | 18 | |
Family income | |||
High income | 370 | 31 (0.6) | |
Middle income | 270 | 18 (1.3) | |
Low income | 850 | 51 (1.7) | |
English as primary language | |||
No | 460 | 33 (1.6) | |
Yes | 1040 | 67 | |
Citizenship | |||
No | 110 | 8 (0.9) | |
Yes | 1390 | 92 | |
Graduate degree expected | |||
No | 690 | 42 (1.7) | |
Yes | 810 | 58 | |
Dependency status | |||
No | 330 | 16 (1.3) | |
Yes | 1160 | 84 | |
Delayed enrollment | 1500 | 2.276 (0.036) | |
Enrollment intensity | |||
Part time/both | 320 | 21 (1.4) | |
Full time | 1170 | 79 | |
Academic/social integration quality | 1500 | 4.301 (0.021) | |
Pell grant status | |||
No | 470 | 41 (1.7) | |
Yes | 1030 | 59 | |
Hours worked | 1500 | 12.129 (0.255) | |
Institutional control | |||
Public | 440 | 37 (1.7) | |
Private nonprofit | 410 | 30 (1.5) | |
Private for-profit | 650 | 33 (1.6) | |
Institutional selectivity | |||
Highly selective | 290 | 23 (1.4) | |
Moderately selective | 350 | 28 (1.5) | |
Minimally selective | 510 | 28 (1.5) | |
Open admission | 350 | 21 (1.4) |
R2 | F | df1 | df2 | p | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variables | 0.120 | 6.689 | 30 | 1464 | *** |
95% CI | |||||
B | SE | p | LL | UL | |
Constant | 2.643 | 0.237 | *** | 2.179 | 3.107 |
Loan status | −0.223 | 0.076 | ** | −0.372 | −0.075 |
Debt level | |||||
High debt | 0.148 | 0.063 | * | 0.026 | 0.271 |
Medium debt | 0.089 | 0.061 | 0.145 | ___ | ___ |
Sex | −0.058 | 0.030 | 0.056 | ___ | ___ |
Age | −0.031 | 0.056 | 0.579 | ___ | ___ |
Race/ethnicity | |||||
African American | −0.144 | 0.085 | 0.090 | ___ | ___ |
Hispanic/Latino | −0.037 | 0.085 | 0.667 | ___ | ___ |
Asian | 0.183 | 0.097 | 0.059 | ___ | ___ |
Multiracial | −0.001 | 0.091 | 0.996 | ___ | ___ |
First-generation status | 0.054 | 0.035 | 0.123 | ___ | ___ |
Having dependents | −0.039 | 0.044 | 0.380 | ___ | ___ |
Family income | |||||
High income | 0.000 | 0.055 | 0.996 | ___ | ___ |
Middle income | 0.076 | 0.039 | * | 0.000 | 0.152 |
English as the primary language | 0.045 | 0.039 | 0.246 | ___ | ___ |
Citizenship | −0.169 | 0.057 | ** | −0.280 | −0.057 |
Graduate degree expected | 0.099 | 0.031 | ** | 0.038 | 0.160 |
Dependency status | −0.042 | 0.053 | 0.422 | ___ | ___ |
Delayed enrollment | 0.079 | 0.019 | *** | 0.042 | 0.117 |
Enrollment intensity | 0.092 | 0.035 | ** | 0.024 | 0.159 |
Academic/social integration quality | 0.105 | 0.041 | * | 0.025 | 0.186 |
Pell grant status | −0.140 | 0.064 | * | −0.265 | −0.015 |
Hours worked | −0.003 | 0.003 | 0.388 | ___ | ___ |
Institutional control | |||||
Public | −0.073 | 0.054 | 0.172 | ___ | ___ |
Private nonprofit | 0.057 | 0.053 | 0.276 | ___ | ___ |
Institutional selectivity | |||||
Highly selective | −0.016 | 0.058 | 0.788 | ___ | ___ |
Moderately selective | −0.053 | 0.052 | 0.310 | ___ | ___ |
Minimally selective | −0.061 | 0.042 | 0.146 | ___ | ___ |
Interaction effects | |||||
Loan status * academic/social integration quality | −0.030 | 0.048 | 0.529 | ___ | ___ |
Loan status * work | 0.001 | 0.003 | 0.888 | ___ | ___ |
Loan status * Pell grant status | 0.049 | 0.070 | 0.486 | ___ | ___ |
Model LL | −2LL | df | p | CoxSnell R2 | Nagelkerke R2 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variables | 581.572 | 1472.690 | 31 | *** | 0.322 | 0.432 |
95% CI for OR | ||||||
B | SE | p | OR | LL | UL | |
Constant | −3.600 | 1.175 | ** | 0.027 | ||
GPA | 0.920 | 0.126 | *** | 2.509 | 1.962 | 3.209 |
Loan status | ||||||
Direct effect | −0.469 | 0.357 | 0.190 | ___ | ___ | ___ |
Indirect effect (SE and CI bootstrapped) | −0.206 | 0.070 | 0.814 | 0.698 | 0.919 | |
Debt level | ||||||
High debt | ||||||
Direct effect | 0.929 | 0.310 | ** | 2.532 | 1.379 | 4.646 |
Indirect effect (SE and CI bootstrapped) | 0.136 | 0.058 | 1.146 | 1.033 | 1.296 | |
Medium debt | ||||||
Direct effect | 0.593 | 0.294 | * | 1.809 | 1.018 | 3.216 |
Indirect effect (SE and CI bootstrapped) | 0.082 | 0.053 | 1.085 | 0.985 | 1.218 | |
Covariates (Table A1, Appendix A) | ___ | ___ | ___ | ___ | ___ | ___ |
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Bui, B.C. How Debt and Attainment Relate through the GPA of Non-White College Students. Soc. Sci. 2024, 13, 407. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci13080407
Bui BC. How Debt and Attainment Relate through the GPA of Non-White College Students. Social Sciences. 2024; 13(8):407. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci13080407
Chicago/Turabian StyleBui, Binh Chi. 2024. "How Debt and Attainment Relate through the GPA of Non-White College Students" Social Sciences 13, no. 8: 407. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci13080407