Next Article in Journal
Monitoring of Norwegian Foster Homes
Previous Article in Journal
“I Just Want to Live My Life”: Young Disabled People’s Possibilities for Achieving Participation and Wellness
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Social Sciences
Volume 13
Issue 1
10.3390/socsci13010064
socsci-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

The Role of Self-Control in Cyberbullying Bystander Behavior

by
Revital Sela-Shayovitz
1,*,
Michal Levy
2,3 and
Jonathan Hasson
4,5
1
The Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Ono Academic College, Kiryat Ono 5510101, Israel
2
Special Education Department, David Yellin College of Education, Jerusalem 9634207, Israel
3
Special Education Department, Seymour Fox School of Education, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Mt. Scopus, Jerusalem 9190501, Israel
4
Centre for Criminology, Faculty of Law, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3UL, UK
5
Center for the Study of Crime, Law and Society, University of Haifa, Haifa 3103301, Israel
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Soc. Sci. 2024, 13(1), 64; https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci13010064
Submission received: 20 October 2023 / Revised: 21 December 2023 / Accepted: 10 January 2024 / Published: 18 January 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Childhood and Youth Studies)
Browse Figure
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The present study examined the association between general low self-control (LSC) and its three subcomponents: risk taking, self-centeredness, and impulsivity and various bystander behaviors of cyberbullying. The study utilized a bifactor modeling approach and included a sample of 501 adolescents aged 14–18 years old. Participants’ behaviors were measured using a self-reported questionnaire. General LSC was positively associated with the cyberbully-supporters’ and passive bystanders’ behaviors. Additionally, risk taking was positively associated with both the victim-defender’s and cyberbully-supporter’s behaviors, while self-centeredness was positively associated with both the passive bystander’s and the cyberbully-supporter’s behaviors. Furthermore, impulsivity was positively associated with the cyberbully-supporter’s behaviors. We conclude that general LSC plays an important role in understanding the cyberbully-supporter’s and passive bystander’s behaviors in cyberspace. Furthermore, the analysis revealed that LSC subcomponents were also associated with the bystanders’ behaviors above and beyond the associations between general LSC and these types of behaviors.

1. Introduction

Social media has become integral to almost every aspect of daily life, and provides multiple forms of speedy global interaction, mainly for young people (Turel et al. 2019). Although social media may have positive effects by promoting psychological wellbeing and reducing feelings of loneliness and social anxiety (Ando and Sakamoto 2008; Pittman and Reich 2016), it also provides new opportunities for deviance and cyberbullying (Nazir and Thabassum 2021; Vandebosch et al. 2012).
Cyberbullying refers to an intentional, repeated aggressive behavior utilizing electronic technology, often involving a power imbalance between the perpetrators and victims (Vismara et al. 2022). There is an ongoing debate about the definition of cyberbullying and whether the three criteria offered by Olweus (1993) for defining traditional bullying—intent, repetitiveness, and imbalance—are applicable to cyberbullying (Menesini et al. 2012; Menin et al. 2021; Olweus and Limber 2018). Some researchers believe that there is no essential difference between cyberbullying and traditional bullying (Olweus and Limber 2018; see Vaillancourt et al. 2017), while others believe there is and that some characteristics of cyberbullying need to be reconceptualized (Barlett et al. 2017; Savage and Tokunaga 2017). For instance, studies show that the power imbalance has shifted from the difference in physical strength or higher status in traditional bullying to technical knowledge that allows broader and faster exposure in cyberbullying. Furthermore, the online environment enables bullies to harm the victim anonymously, acting without inhibition as they are not visually confronted with the victim’s distress (Hinduja and Patchin 2015; Peter and Petermann 2018). The criterion of repetition is also debatable due to the key features of cyberbullying, including the potential 24/7 exposure to online bullying by multiple users (Hinduja and Patchin 2015; Peter and Petermann 2018), and the potential for a broader audience, amplifying the exposure and embarrassment of the victim when shared online (Kowalski et al. 2019; Selkie et al. 2016; Vismara et al. 2022).
In the last decades, cyberbullying has become a crucial problem for adolescents (Chan et al. 2023; Chamizo-Nieto et al. 2020; Eyuboglu et al. 2021; Peled 2019). Furthermore, during the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been an increase in cyberbullying rates partly because of the increased use of social media and the wish to stay connected following the enforcement of social distancing measures (Karmakar and Das 2020; Nazir and Thabassum 2021). Cyberbullying has adverse effects on mental health and poses a risk to the emotional and psychological well-being of youth across countries (Nazir and Thabassum 2021; Patchin and Hinduja 2010). Adolescents victimized by cyberbullying report mental distress as well as feelings of hopelessness, loneliness, and anxiety (Das et al. 2020; Nixon 2014).
In addition to the victim–bully dyad, bystanders play a key role in maintaining or preventing cyberbullying (Allison and Bussey 2016). They can actively defend the victim and confront the aggressor or help the victim indirectly, for example, by calling for assistance. But they can also actively support and encourage the aggressor or choose not to respond, ignore the aggressive incident, and remain outsiders (Schultze-Krumbholz et al. 2018). Despite the identification of distinct roles for cyber bystanders in prior research (Polanco-Levicán and Salvo-Garrido 2021), defining fixed roles in the context of cyberbullying proves to be a complex challenge. Individuals involved in cyberbullying exhibit diverse positions, taking on roles as perpetrators, victims, or bystanders (Vismara et al. 2022). These roles are dynamic, changing over time and across different contexts (Moretti and Herkovits 2021). Thus, in the present study, we distinguish between cyberbully-supporters’, victim-defenders’, and passive bystanders’ behaviors. However, we do acknowledge the dynamic and mutable nature of these behaviors.
Investigating cyberbullying bystanders’ behavior is important for several reasons. First, bystanders’ behavior has a powerful influence on the dynamics of cyberbullying and can aggravate the aggression or bring the incident to an end (Allison and Bussey 2016). Second, the online environment is characterized by anonymity, physical distance, and a lower level of adult supervision (Patchin and Hinduja 2010). These characteristics contribute to expressing oneself freely without restraint and the fear of being punished (Macaulay et al. 2022; Suler 2004). Thus, some adolescents utilize the cyberspace for toxic behavior containing hatred, rude language, and offensive behaviors (Suler 2004; Wachs and Wright 2018). Under these circumstances, cyberbullying bystanders may engage in supporting the bully or avoiding/ignoring the cyberbullying incident altogether. Recent studies have provided evidence about the role of personal factors, such as prosocial behaviors, cognitive and affective empathy, and moral reasoning skills in explaining cyberbullying bystander behaviors (Barlińska et al. 2018; Macháčková et al. 2018). Therefore, it is important to understand the various factors that influence their behavior.
The current study draws on the general theory of crime (Gottfredson and Hirschi 1990) to explore cyberbullying bystander behaviors. There is growing knowledge on the role of general low self-control (LSC) and offline bullying and cyberbullying (Holt et al. 2012; Lianos and McGrath 2018; Vazsonyi et al. 2012). However, little is known about the association between general LSC and cyberbullying bystander behaviors. Considering the low level of adult supervision (Patchin and Hinduja 2010) in the cyberspace and adolescents’ disinhibited cyber response patterns (Macaulay et al. 2022; Suler 2004), exploring the factors that may influence bystander behaviors is particularly pertinent. The present study attempts to fill this gap by analyzing whether general LSC is associated with cyberbullying bystander behaviors. Furthermore, although the use of the general LSC scale has been found to be a strong predictor of delinquency and criminal behavior (Marcus 2004), there is a debate about LSC dimensionality and its measurement (Bobbio and Arbach 2021). Furthermore, examining cyberbullying bystander behaviors only by general LSC may limit our understanding of how specific subcomponents of LSC contribute to explaining the variance in cyberbullying bystander behaviors. Thus, we used a bifactor modeling approach that allowed us to assess whether general LSC is associated with various behaviors of cyberbullying bystanders, above and beyond the three core subcomponents of LSC (i.e., impulsivity, risk taking, and self-centeredness; Gottfredson and Hirschi 1990) and vice versa.
Given the positive associations between bullies, bully-supporters, and passive bystanders (Levy and Sela-Shayovitz 2020; Oh and Hazler 2009), an examination of general LSC and its subcomponents may provide a better understanding of the cyberbully bystander’s decision to support the bully or remain passive. Understanding these associations may help design effective school interventions to reduce cyberbullying.

2. Cyberbullying Bystanders

Cyberbullying bystander behavior is affected by a range of contextual and personal factors (Jeyagobi et al. 2022). The severity of the incident, a previous good relationship with the victim, the victims’ upset response, and their direct requests for help have been positively associated with support of the victim (Bastiaensens et al. 2014; Macaulay et al. 2022; Macháčková et al. 2013). Bystanders are more likely to intervene actively on behalf of the victim in incidents with multiple online aggressors and in cases with a power imbalance between the aggressors and the victim (Kazerooni et al. 2018).
The personal factors that have been found to be positively related to supporting the cyberbullying victim include a general tendency toward prosocial behavior, high level of moral reasoning skills, self-efficacy, affective and cognitive empathy, and the bystander’s prior experience as a victim of aggressive behavior (Barlińska et al. 2018; Jeyagobi et al. 2022; Macháčková et al. 2018). Conversely, cyberbully-supporters and passive bystanders are more likely to have lower empathy than cyberbullying victim-defenders (Pozzoli et al. 2017; Van Cleemput et al. 2014). Passive bystanders and bully-supporters are also more likely to display moral disengagement than victim-defenders (DeSmet et al. 2014; Van Cleemput et al. 2014). Thus, research findings have indicated that there are some similar personal patterns between the cyberbully-supporter and the passive bystander. In this context, it has been suggested that passive bystanders’ behaviors are perceived by the bully as quietly consenting to the bullying incident and thereby reinforcing the bully’s behavior (Menesini et al. 2003; Salmivalli 2010), thus suggesting both types of bystander behaviors support the bully (i.e., pro-bully bystander behaviors).
Regarding demographic differences, several studies found no correlation between age and cyberbullying bystander behavior (Bastiaensens et al. 2015; Macaulay et al. 2022; Macháčková et al. 2013). However, other studies demonstrated that older adolescents were less inclined to assist the victim and were more likely to remain passive or join the cyberbullies than younger adolescents (Erreygers et al. 2016; Panumaporn et al. 2020). Furthermore, the findings on gender differences in cyberbullying bystander behavior are inconsistent. Some indicate that no evidence was found for gender differences in bystander online behaviors (Barlińska et al. 2013; Bastiaensens et al. 2015; Kozubal et al. 2019; Macháčková et al. 2013). In contrast, other studies show that boys are more likely to display negative behavior, join in the cyberbullying, or remain passive (Schultze-Krumbholz et al. 2018; González-Cabrera et al. 2019), whereas girls are more likely to positively defend the victim (Bastiaensens et al. 2014; Campbell et al. 2017; Macháčková et al. 2015; Panumaporn et al. 2020).

3. Self-Control Theory

The general theory of crime (Gottfredson and Hirschi 1990) proposes that crime and delinquency are rooted in individuals’ inability to restrain their behavior as a result of LSC. Hirschi (2004) redefined self-control as a cognitive tendency to assess the possible consequences of a given behavior. Accordingly, individuals with LSC are characterized by a low level of self-regulation and inability to consider the consequences of their behavior in the short and long term, which leads them to engage in crime and delinquency. This seminal theory shifted the cause of crime back to early childhood socialization practices within the family and had a profound effect on criminological debate and on empirical studies (e.g., Engel 2012; Pratt and Cullen 2000). Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) suggested that self-control is established in the late childhood years and appears to remain stable throughout one’s lifetime.
Recent studies, however, indicate that self-control does not remain stable, but levels increase or decrease over the course of life and as a result of stressful life events. In particular, youths have a greater tendency to lose self-control than do adults (Pratt 2016). The theory proposes that individuals with LSC share six essential subcomponents: (a) preference for simple tasks, (b) preference for physical rather than mental activities, (c) risk taking, (d) impulsivity, (e) self-centeredness, and (f) difficulty controlling personal temper. These six subcomponents of LSC coalesce into a personality structure characterized by a tendency to engage in illegal behavior and crime (Gottfredson and Hirschi 1990). Accordingly, individuals with LSC are more likely to be involved in antisocial behavior because they strive to increase their pleasure and are incapable of controlling their behavior in search of this pleasure (Gottfredson and Hirschi 1990). Therefore, they tend to choose antisocial behaviors that provide immediate gains, even if they have negative consequences in the long term (Holt et al. 2012).
Based on the concept of the general theory of crime (Gottfredson and Hirschi 1990), Grasmick et al. (1993) designed a scale that is commonly used as a unidimensional model of LSC (Walters 2016). This LSC scale has gained empirical support for deviant and criminal behaviors (Holtfreter et al. 2010; Gottfredson 2006; Pratt and Cullen 2000; Vazsonyi et al. 2017) and is associated with juvenile delinquency (Brownfield and Sorenson 1993; DeLisi and Vaughn 2008), youth violent offenses and their likelihood of being arrested by the police (Jackson et al. 2020), and bullying behavior (Chui and Chan 2013). Nevertheless, there is an ongoing debate regarding the unidimensionality of the LSC scale (Piquero and Rosay 1998), and scholars have demonstrated the existence of a multidimensional model consisting of six correlated subcomponents that better explain the structure of LSC in a variety of samples (e.g., Arneklev et al. 1993; Conner et al. 2009; Vazsonyi et al. 2001).
Among the six subcomponents of LSC, impulsivity and preference for risk taking were found to be strong predictors of engaging in delinquency and crime (Longshore 1998; Piquero and Rosay 1998; Rocque et al. 2016; Ward et al. 2015), and these subcomponents as well as self-centeredness are associated with behavioral disorders and conduct problems, independently of the general construct of LSC (Hay and Meldrum 2015; Loeber et al. 1998; Moffitt et al. 2011; Pechorro et al. 2022), suggesting these three subcomponents are the core features of LSC (Pechorro et al. 2022). To this end, Pechorro et al. (2022) examined different structures (i.e., general factor, correlated factors, second order factor, and bifactor model) of the original and shorter version of the LSC scale (i.e., consisting of risk taking, self-centeredness, and impulsivity) and found adequate to good fit indices as well as strong cross-gender measurement invariance for the latter. Thus, we propose examining a shorter version of the LSC scale by empirically examining a bifactor model that consists of the three core components of LSC as well as a general construct of LSC.
Regarding age differences, some studies have concluded that LSC develops up until the age of 8–10 and remains stable throughout adolescence and adulthood (Higgins et al. 2009; Coyne and Wright 2014), while others have demonstrated changes in adolescent’s LSC (Na and Paternoster 2012). For instance, a recent study found LSC to be the primary predictor of delinquency among young adolescents between 13 and 15 years and to be more stable between older adolescents between ages 15 and 17 (Huijsmans et al. 2019). Other studies have suggested that LSC remains stable among some individuals and varies among others (Meldrum et al. 2012; Ray et al. 2013). One explanation to this inconsistency lies in the development of each LSC behavior. For instance, risk-seeking, which relates to seeking out new and exciting experiences emerges in early adolescence, whereas impulsivity, which refers to acting on the spur of the moment or difficulty in delaying gratification, develops in childhood and declines in adolescence (Forrest et al. 2019). As for gender differences, LSC is more common among boys than girls. Girls are less likely than boys to be impulsive, have a temper and engage in physical activities, self-centeredness, and risk taking (Longshore et al. 1998; Gibson et al. 2010). Additionally, past research has argued that the SC scale has a low predictive ability in explaining female involvement in crime (Longshore et al. 1998).

Low Self-Control and Cybercrime

Researchers have explored the associations between general LSC and offline school aggression (Chui and Chan 2013) and general LSC and cybercrime and cyberbullying (Holt et al. 2012; Lianos and McGrath 2018; Vazsonyi et al. 2012). Findings indicate that general LSC is significantly associated with cyberbullying behavior of youths (Cho and Rustu 2020; Kim et al. 2022; Shadmanfaat et al. 2019) and strongly correlated to cybercrime in general (Holt et al. 2012). Furthermore, low self-control significantly predicts cyber offending and cybervictim-offending (Nodeland 2020). Individuals with LSC are more likely to be involved in cyberbullying than those with high self-control (Li et al. 2016; Lianos and McGrath 2018). Additionally, an indirect effect was found between LSC and cyber-victimization and perpetration, whereby this association was mediated by offline victimization and perpetration (Vazsonyi et al. 2012) or by greater opportunity, such as the amount of time spent online (Lianos and McGrath 2018).
Despite the growing knowledge regarding the positive association between general LSC and offline bullying and cyberbullying, little is known about the association between general LSC and online bystander behaviors. However, previous studies indicated associations between offline bullies, bully-supporters, and passive bystanders. For instance, similar to bullies’ behavioral patterns, the bully-supporter engages in antisocial behaviors to reinforce and encourage the bully in hurting the victim (Salmivalli 2010). Other studies have also shown positive associations among bullies, aggressive victims, bully-supporters, and passive bystanders (Levy and Sela-Shayovitz 2020; Oh and Hazler 2009), whereby past bullies or aggressive-victims reported also supporting the bully or ignoring the bullying events. Thus, similar to the bullies, it is likely that LSC will also be positively associated with the cyberbully-supporters and passive bystanders.
At the same time, bystander behaviors in cyberspace may be related to specific components of LSC, especially with regards to the three central subcomponents of LSC (i.e., impulsivity, risk taking, and self-centeredness). For instance, Pozzoli and Gini’s (2010) study on bystander behaviors in offline bullying showed that students may engage in passive bystander behaviors (i.e., avoiding or staying away from the bullying incident) because it is less risky than defending the victim, and these behaviors may protect them from being victimized or rejected by peers. Conversely, the victim-defenders may take risks in protecting the victim, possibly because they are less sensitive to the rewards (benefits) of avoiding defending the victim in social conflicts and are more concerned with the wellbeing of others and less concerned with their own wellbeing (Nocentini et al. 2020), thus suggesting that they take risks to defend the victim and are not self-centered. Lastly, Erreygers et al. (2016) found impulsivity to be negatively correlated with defending the victim, as noted.

4. The Current Study

The current study aims to examine the relationship between LSC and bystander responses to cyberbullying. Based on the literature on LSC and bystanders’ behaviors, we hypothesized that general LSC would be associated with the cyberbully-supporter and passive bystander beyond the subcomponents of LSC; however, this construct would not be associated with the victim-defender (H1). We also expected to find associations between LSC subcomponents and all three types of bystander behaviors, such that risk taking would positively be linked to the cyberbully-supporter and victim-defender (H2); self-centeredness would be positively associated with the passive bystander and the cyberbully-supporter (H3); and impulsivity would be positively associated with the cyberbully-supporter (H4).

5. Method

5.1. Data

Data were collected through an online self-report survey from a sample of Israeli adolescents by a professional research institute, Panel4all, which worked under the authors’ supervision and in accordance with the ethical standards of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) during the year 2020. The research institute was commissioned to create a random sample of adolescents from different age groups. Parents of the adolescents received a link to an information page describing the aims of the study and a link to the questionnaire. In the first stage, the parents of adolescents were asked to actively consent to their children’s participation. The rate of parents’ refusal to allow their children to participate in the study was 14.3%, and 34.6% did not respond. Next, the adolescents received information about the aims of the study and were required to sign their informed consent to participate in the study. The final sample consisted of 501 adolescents who were 14–18 years old (M = 16.31, SD = 1.34), and 330 (65.9%) participants were female. No missing data were reported in the current study.

5.2. Measures

Dependent Variables. Bystander behaviors were measured using a questionnaire based on the revised version of the Participant Role Questionnaire (Salmivalli and Voeten 2004) and adjusted to cyberbullying incidents. The scale consists of 10 items measuring three types of cyber bystander behaviors (see Table 1). Participants were asked to think of cyberbullying incidents they had encountered on social network sites in the preceding six months and to rate their response on a 5-point behavioral rating scale: 1 = Never, 2 = Rarely, 3 = Sometimes, 4 = Frequently, 5 = Always. Questions referred to the adolescents’ general experiences of cyberbullying, not to limit their experiences to a specific online context. Three bystander behaviors were measured: victim-defender was measured using four items (e.g., “You sent a message to the whole group demanding that they stop the aggression against the victim”) (M = 2.27, SD = 1.00); cyberbully-supporter was measured using three items (e.g., “You responded with laughter to the insult (you sent comments like: “ha, ha” or a laughing emoji)”) (M = 1.25, SD = 0.58); passive bystander was measured using three items (e.g., “You read the offensive messages sent to the victim, however you did not respond”) (M = 2.30, SD = 0.90). A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted using the AMOS ver. 29 software to estimate the measurement model of the bystander behaviors’ scale. Table 1 displays the results of the CFA for the bystander three-factor model. Fit indices of the model indicate a very good fit. The χ2/df ratio (1.78), as well as the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) value (0.04) and SRMR value (0.04), were acceptable, and both the comparative fit index (CFI: 0.98) and the Tucker-Lewis fit index (TLI: 0.97) indicate a good fit to the data. The factor loadings presented in Table 1 are equal to or greater than 0.49 and significant (p < 0.001). Table 1 includes Cronbach’s reliability alpha for each type of bystander. These were 0.80, 0.82, and 0.56 for the victim-defender, cyberbully-supporter, and passive bystander, respectively.
To ensure that the bystander behavior scale has adequate psychometric properties across gender and age, we conducted an invariance analysis. Measurement invariance means that each item contributes to the latent construct to a similar degree across groups and that the correlations between factors are equivalent across groups. Invariance analysis involves testing and comparing models that impose successive restrictions on model parameters. The unconstrained model freely estimates all the parameters across groups. Next, in a more restrictive model, factor loadings are constrained to be equal across groups. In the last model, factor loadings and factor covariances are constrained to be equal across groups.
This type of metric invariance is usually the common form of invariance tested in the field of education and social sciences (Putnick and Bornstein 2016). Invariance is achieved when an insignificant chi-square difference between nested models is obtained. Because full measurement invariance in all steps is often not supported, a common practice is to accept some violations of measurement invariance (e.g., relaxing constraints on one or more loadings). A factor can be considered partially invariant if the majority of items loading on it are invariant (Vandenberg and Lance 2000).
Starting with gender invariance, the unconstrained model (χ2(64) = 79.70, p = 0.089, CFI = 0.99, TLI = 0.98, RMSEA = 0.02) and the loading constrained model (χ2(71) = 92.02, p = 0.048, CFI = 0.99, TLI = 0.98, RMSEA = 0.02) were not significantly different (Δχ2(7) = 12.32, p = 0.091). Next, after relaxing the two equality constrains from the correlation between victim-defender and cyberbully and between cyberbully and passive bystander (χ2(72) = 94.77, p = 0.037, CFI = 0.98, TLI = 0.98, RMSEA = 0.03), a covariance invariance was achieved (Δχ2(1) = 2.75, p = 0.097).
As for age invariance, the unconstrained model (χ2(64) = 109.89, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.04) and the loading constrained model (χ2(70) = 116.75, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.96, RMSEA = 0.04) were not significantly different (Δχ2(6) = 6.86, p = 0.334) after relaxing one loading in the cyberbully factor. Next, imposing additional constrains on the factor covariances (χ2(73) = 119.06, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.96, RMSEA = 0.04) did not significantly change the model fit (Δχ2(3) = 2.32, p = 0.509). In summary, measurement invariance indicated that age and gender equivalence was achieved for 92% and 85% of the parameters, respectively. Given that 50% equivalence is accepted for a partial invariance, the bystander behavior scale is considered partially invariant across gender and age.
Independent Variable. Self-control was measured using the shorter version of the LSC scale, recommended by Pechorro et al. (2022), and included three subcomponents of LSC: risk taking, self-centeredness, and impulsivity. These elements were measured using Grasmick et al.’s (1993) scale of four items for each of the LSC subcomponents. Participants were asked to rate their level of agreement with each LSC scale item, based on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 = Not at all to 5 = Very much. Thus, higher values indicate lower self-control. Cronbach’s reliability alpha for general LSC was 0.83 and were 0.80, 0.73, and 0.66 for risk taking, self-centeredness, and impulsivity, respectively.
Control Variables. Two control variables were used in the study. Gender consisted of 1 = male and 2 = female (M = 1.66, SD = 0.48). Age included 5 values: 1 = 14 years, 2 = 15 years, 3 = 16 years, 4 = 17 years, and 5 = 18 years (M = 16.3, SD = 1.34).

5.3. Analytical Strategies

In the preliminary analysis (using SPSS ver. 25), we examined the frequencies of the bystander behaviors (cyberbully-supporter, victim-defender, and passive bystander) and demographic variables (i.e., gender and age).
Second, we examined the interrelations among the research variables to obtain a preliminary understanding of how LSC variables are related to cyberbullying bystander behaviors by calculating Spearman correlation coefficients (using SPSS ver. 25).
Third, due to the ongoing debate over whether to treat self-control as a unidimensional or a multidimensional model (Bobbio and Arbach 2021; Longshore 1998; Piquero and Rosay 1998; Rocque et al. 2016; Ward et al. 2015), we assessed what would be the best-fitting model for analyzing the relationship between LSC and bystanders’ behaviors. Accordingly, a CFA (using AMOS ver. 29) was conducted to compare the fit of (a) a unidimensional model of LSC that includes all observed items (i.e., risk taking, self-centeredness, and impulsivity) loaded on one latent construct (i.e., general factor); (b) a correlated factor structure where the three subcomponents are treated as unique latent constructs (i.e., specific factors) that are correlated; (c) a second-order factor structure, where the observed items are explained by the three core subcomponents, and these subcomponents are explained by general LSC; and (d) a bifactor model, where the variance from each of the observed items is simultaneously partitioned by both the general factor and its subcomponent.
Fourth, based on the results of the CFA analysis, a bifactor model was used to examine whether general LSC and its subcomponents could explain the differences in cyberbullying bystander behaviors using Structural Equation Models (SEM) with AMOS ver. 29 software. In a bifactor model, each observed variable is loaded simultaneously on a specific factor (i.e., impulsivity, risk taking, and self-centeredness) as well as on a general factor (i.e., general LSC) and all factors are defined as orthogonal. As such, all latent variables in the model are first-order factors and are defined directly by the observed variables. The items’ loadings on the general factor and one of the subcomponents are freely estimated while their cross-loadings on the remaining subcomponents are constrained to zero. As such, the covariance between the observed items is explained by the general factor underlying the items, and the residual covariance is explained by the subcomponents (Morin et al. 2016), thus solving the problem of psychometric multicollinearity between subcomponents by defining a general factor that explains the shared variance among all observed items (Reise 2012). Gender and participants’ age were incorporated as covariates in the analyses to manage additional demographic variance. Drawing on the scientific literature (Bastiaensens et al. 2014; Macháčková et al. 2015; Pratt 2016), associations were established between gender and the three bystander behaviors, as well as between gender, general LSC, and the three LSC subcomponents. Additionally, connections were added between age and general LSC, the three LSC subcomponents, and the three bystander behaviors. The SEM analysis was based on the maximum likelihood method of estimation, and fit indices included the chi-square value (χ2/df) and the cut-off values of <0.06 for RMSEA (root mean square error of approximation), <0.08 for SRMR (standardized root mean square residual), >0.95 for CFI (comparative fit index), and >0.90 for TLI (Tucker Lewis index) (Hu and Bentler 1999; Schreiber et al. 2006).
To evaluate the Structural Equation Model’s (SEM) robustness, we conducted a power analysis using MacCallum et al.’s (2010) method in R software (ver. 4.0.5), with an expected RAMSEA of 0.05, significance level (α) at 0.05, and 214 degrees of freedom (df). The analysis demonstrated a 99% statistical power, signifying the model’s ability to detect the specified effect size. The achieved sample size for this study is 300 participants based on these results.

6. Results

6.1. Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics for this study’s variables are presented in Table 2 and show that 54 (10.8%) were classified as cyberbully-supporters, 91 (18.2%) as passive bystanders, and 76 (15.2%) as victim-defenders. Mardia’s coefficients were applied to assess the multivariate measure of kurtosis (Table 2), revealing potential non-normality in the data (especially for the bully-supporter scale). Notably, this test’s sensitivity to sample sizes was acknowledged, prompting the decision to maintain the original sample size at N = 501.

6.2. Spearman Correlation Coefficients among Research Variables

The findings in Table 3 indicate that supporting cyberbullying was positively associated with boys more than with girls. In addition, there was a positive association between supporting cyberbullying and general LSC as well as with all three subcomponents of LSC. Cyber victim-defender behaviors were positively associated with risk taking. Passive bystander behaviors were positively associated with boys more than with girls and positively associated with general LSC and all three subcomponents. Age was not found to be associated with any of the cyberbullying bystander behaviors; however, LSC was associated with younger adolescents.

6.3. Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Table 4 summarizes the fit indices of the four LSC measurement models. The χ2/df = 3.06, the RMSEA = 0.06, SRMR = 0.04, and the CFI (0.95) and TLI (0.92) indices all indicate the bifactor model has the best fit to the data. Regression loadings of the four models are presented in Table 5. The factor loadings presented in the bifactor model are equal to or greater than 0.37 and significant (p < 0.001), with the exception of two items that had low regression loadings (items 10 and 12). However, based on previous studies that demonstrated impulsivity as one of the core subcomponents of LSC associated with behavioral disorders and conduct problems (Longshore 1998; Pechorro et al. 2022; Piquero and Rosay 1998; Rocque et al. 2016; Ward et al. 2015), we included impulsivity as a subcomponent in the final model.
To examine the LSC bifactor invariance across gender and age, we applied a similar approach as described for the bystander scale. Given that the LSC bifactor model did not include covariances, only loading invariance was examined. Starting with gender invariance, the unconstrained model (χ2(85) = 187.36, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.94, TLI = 0.91, RMSEA = 0.05) and the loading constrained model (χ2(99) = 203.77, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.94, TLI = 0.92, RMSEA = 0.05) were not significantly different (Δχ2(14) = 16.41, p = 0.289) after relaxing 9 paths out of 24. Hence, 63% invariance was achieved. As for age invariance, the unconstrained model (χ2(84) = 192.98, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.94, TLI = 0.90, RMSEA = 0.05) and the loading constrained model (χ2(103) = 222.24, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.94, TLI = 0.90, RMSEA = 0.045) were not significantly different (Δχ2(19) = 29.26, p = 0.062) after relaxing 5 paths out of 24. Hence, 79% invariance was achieved. Taken together, partial invariance across gender and age was achieved.

6.4. A Bifactor Model

Next, we conducted SEM analysis (using AMOS ver. 29) to examine the paths between the bifactor model (G-factor and two S-factors) and cyberbullying bystander behaviors. The χ2/df = 1.99, RMSEA = 0.04, SRMR = 0.05, and the CFI (0.94) and TLI (0.92) indices indicate a reasonable fit to the data.
Figure 1 presents regression weights between general LSC and its subcomponents in the bifactor model and the three types of bystander behaviors and indicates that general LSC is positively and significantly associated with the cyberbully-supporter behaviors (0.17, p < 0.05) and with the passive bystander behaviors (0.41, p < 0.001), beyond the association of LSC subcomponents with these types of bystander behaviors. LSC subcomponents were also associated with the bystanders’ behaviors above and beyond the associations between general LSC and these types of behaviors. Risk taking was positively associated with both the victim-defenders’ behaviors (0.33, p < 0.001) and cyberbully-supporters’ behaviors (0.41, p < 0.001). In addition, self-centeredness was positively associated with both the passive bystanders’ behaviors (0.40, p < 0.001) and the cyberbully-supporters’ behaviors (0.42, p < 0.001). Impulsivity was positively associated with the cyberbully-supporters’ behaviors (0.66, p < 0.001). Among the covariates, gender was associated with victim-defender behaviors, such that girls reported defending the victims more than boys (0.21, p < 0.01). Gender was not associated with passive bystanders’ or cyberbully-supporters’ behaviors (p > 0.05). Gender was also associated with the LSC subcomponents, such that boys were more likely to report risk taking (−0.24, p < 0.01) and self-centeredness (−0.23, p < 0.01) than girls. Lastly, age was positively associated with both the bully-supporter (0.32, p < 0.05) and victim-defender (0.18, p < 0.05) behaviors. That is, older adolescents are more likely to support the cyberbully or defend the cybervictim. Additionally, age was positively associated with risk taking (−0.21, p < 0.01) and impulsivity (−0.30, p < 0.05). Namely, younger adolescents were more likely to engage in these behaviors. Table 6 displays measurement models of the bystander behaviors and LSC bifactor model within the SEM model.
To test whether the model presented in Figure 1 (without gender and age) is equivalent across gender, we used the multi-group approach in SEM. To do so, we compared the fit indices of a “free” model, where all regression paths were freely estimated for each gender group, to the fit indices of a “constrained” model in which the path coefficients were constrained to be equal across gender. Model comparison was conducted by testing the significance of the chi-square difference between the free and constrained models. Results indicated that the free and constrained models were significantly different (Δχ2(12) = 25.03, p = 0.015). Yet after relaxing the equality constraint on the path between risk taking to cyberbully-supporters, no significant difference was found between the models (Δχ2(11) = 17.59, p = 0.092). Thus, except for the association between risk taking and cyberbully-supporters, which was significant for girls (β = 0.26, p < 0.001) but not for boys (β = −0.19, p = 0.259), all other path coefficients were equivalent across gender. Hence, it may be concluded that gender equivalence was achieved.

7. Discussion

Cyberbullying bystander behavior has attracted increasing attention in the past decade. Nevertheless, little is known about the utility of LSC in explaining response patterns of bystanders to aggressive online behavior. The current study utilized a bifactor model to explore whether general LSC explains various behaviors of cyberbullying bystanders, above and beyond LSC subcomponents and vice versa. Several findings are noteworthy.
First, the findings show that a bifactor model, which consists of both general LSC and its subcomponents, best represents the structure of LSC, exhibiting partial invariance across gender and age. This finding may indicate that LSC measures are interpreted differently across gender and age groups, and these distinct interpretations of LSC measures should be taken into account in future studies.
Concurrent with previous research (Bobbio and Arbach 2021; Pechorro et al. 2022), the bifactor model represents both uni- and multidimensions of the LSC scale, while taking into consideration psychometric multicollinearity between subcomponents (Reise 2012). This approach to LSC contributes to the ongoing debate regarding the unidimensionality of the LSC scale (Piquero and Rosay 1998), by taking into consideration the multidimensionality of this measure.
Second, with regard to the associations between LSC and bystander behaviors, general LSC was positively associated with supporting the cyberbully and passively standing by. These findings support the first hypothesis and stress the important role general LSC plays in understanding the bully-supporter and passive bystander behaviors in cyberspace. These findings are in line with previous studies that indicate individuals with LSC are more likely to be involved in cyberbullying than those with high self-control (Li et al. 2016; Lianos and McGrath 2018). Furthermore, previous studies have shown positive associations between bullies, cyberbully-supporters, and passive bystanders (Levy and Sela-Shayovitz 2020; Oh and Hazler 2009). Thus, it can be assumed that, similar to the link between the bully and LSC, the cyberbully-supporter and the passive bystander are also associated with LSC.
Third, the SEM analysis also revealed that beyond the association between general LSC and the cyberbully-supporters’ and passive bystanders’ behaviors, subcomponents of LSC were also associated with these bystander behaviors. As for cyberbully-supporters, the results show that they were positively associated with risk taking. This result supports the second hypothesis and suggests that cyberbully-supporters take more risks than other bystanders do. It is possible that, similar to offline bullying, the potential benefits (e.g., gaining popularity, gaining friends, and doing the right thing) outweigh the potential costs (e.g., punishment, loss of friends, and loss of popularity; Spadafora et al. 2020). Thus, cyberbully-supporters choose to actively support cyberbullies by encouraging or assisting them in spreading malicious content against their victims. In addition, a positive association was found between taking risks and protecting the victim. It is possible that cybervictim-defenders are less sensitive to the potential costs (e.g., punishment, loss of friends, and loss of popularity; Spadafora et al. 2020) of defending the victim in social conflicts and are more concerned with the wellbeing of others and less concerned with their own wellbeing (Nocentini et al. 2020). Thus, results indicate that general LSC does not explain cybervictim-defenders’ behaviors; however, risk taking may be considered as a separate personality trait that predicts their involvement in cyberbullying.
Our findings support the third hypothesis and indicate that both the cyberbully-supporters and passive bystanders were positively associated with self-centeredness. Previous studies found that passive bystanders are less concerned with the victims (Pozzoli et al. 2017) and that cyberbully-supporters and passive bystanders have less affective empathy (Van Cleemput et al. 2014) than victim-defenders (Macháčková and Pfetsch 2016). Thus, self-centeredness plays an important role in understanding bully-supporters’ and passive bystanders’ responses in cyberspace and may help to better understand cyberbully-supporters’ and passive bystanders’ tendency to focus on their own needs while ignoring others. Furthermore, a previous study (Menesini et al. 2003) indicated that offline bullies are also characterized by self-centeredness. This finding implies some similarity in the dimension of self-centeredness between the bully, the cyberbully-supporter, and the passive bystander. Thus, further research is required to understand the role of self-centeredness in bully and pro-bully bystanders’ online behaviors.
Furthermore, our findings demonstrate that impulsivity was positively associated with cyberbully-supporter’s behaviors. These findings support the fourth hypothesis and suggest that impulsivity contributes to explaining pro-bully behaviors in cyberspace beyond the significant contribution of general LSC. Also, these results are consistent with previous studies that found that impulsivity is one of the core subcomponents of LSC correlated with behavioral disorders and conduct problems (Longshore 1998; Pechorro et al. 2022; Piquero and Rosay 1998; Rocque et al. 2016; Ward et al. 2015) and support the decision to include impulsivity in the model. However, a recent study found that impulsivity and risk taking have differing trajectories. While impulsive behavior decreases (i.e., ages 10–12) throughout adolescence, risk taking increases during this period of time (Forrest et al. 2019). In light of these differing trajectories and considering this research was conducted on adolescents aged 14–18, further research is needed to explore the relationship between impulsivity and cyberbullying bystander roles.
With regards to the covariates, significant differences were found for gender. Results show that girls are more likely to defend the victim (Bastiaensens et al. 2014; Campbell et al. 2017; Macháčková et al. 2015; Panumaporn et al. 2020), while no gender differences were found for cyberbully-supporters. This finding contradicts previous studies that indicated boys were more inclined to engage in behaviors that support the cyberbully (Bastiaensens et al. 2014; Macháčková et al. 2015; Schultze-Krumbholz et al. 2018; González-Cabrera et al. 2019). Nevertheless, other studies did not find gender differences for bystander behaviors (Erreygers et al. 2016; Kozubal et al. 2019; Macháčková and Pfetsch 2016; Schultze-Krumbholz et al. 2018), and therefore, additional research is warranted. Additionally, gender differences were found for LSC subcomponents. Boys were more likely to report risk taking and self-centeredness than girls; however, no gender differences were found for general LSC. These results are consistent with previous studies that found gender differences in impulsivity, risk-seeking, and self-centeredness, with males demonstrating higher levels than females (Gibson et al. 2010; LaGrange and Silverman 1999; Pechorro et al. 2022).
Regarding the association between age and cyber bystander behaviors, the findings indicate that older adolescents are more likely to support the cyberbully. This is consistent with previous studies showing that older adolescents were more likely to join the cyberbully than younger adolescents (Erreygers et al. 2016; Panumaporn et al. 2020). However, this study also demonstrated that older adolescents were more likely to defend the victim than younger ones, suggesting a diverse range of bystander behaviors among older adolescents (Vismara et al. 2022). Additional research is needed to investigate how factors, such as the bullying context (Moretti and Herkovits 2021) and the relationships between bystanders and other participants (Macháčková et al. 2018), contribute to the understanding of older adolescents’ diverse cyber bystander behaviors.
As for the association between age and LSC, findings of the current study indicate that younger adolescents were also more likely to engage in risk taking and impulsivity than older adolescents. This finding partially coincides with a prior study that indicated risk seeking to emerge in early adolescence, whereas impulsivity developed in childhood and declined in adolescence (Forrest et al. 2019). However, this study measured age as a nominal variable (14–18 years old). It is possible that examining distinct age range groups (younger vs. older adolescents) could yield divergent results.
Finally, the research model was equivalent across gender, with the exception of the association between risk taking and cyberbully-supporters, which was significant for girls but not for boys. This finding indicates that females may perceive their support of cyberbullying as riskier than do males and are therefore less likely to support cyberbullying.

7.1. Limitations and Future Directions

The limitations of the present study include a relatively small sample and overrepresentation of females, potentially affecting the generalizability of the results. Additionally, the passive bystander measure has low internal consistency, potentially affecting the validity of the findings. Furthermore, the factor loading of the impulsivity item “I often act on the spur of the moment” was found to be insignificant. This may indicate a problem with the psychometric properties of the LSC scale, which may potentially affect the validity of the findings. The statistical analysis employed in this study utilized traditional Maximum Likelihood (ML) estimation, which assumes multivariate normality. Given the potentially non-normally distributed nature of the data, the use of Maximum Likelihood with robust standard error (MLR) estimation may have been more adequate for this study. Finally, the current study did not control for additional variables that affect bystander response, such as moral reasoning skills, self-efficacy, affective and cognitive empathy, the bystander’s prior experience as a victim or as a bully of aggressive behavior, and relationships with other participants (Barlińska et al. 2018; Jeyagobi et al. 2022; Macháčková et al. 2018). Thus, further research is required to understand more deeply the role of general LSC and its components in cyber bystanders’ behaviors.

7.2. Conclusions and Practical Implications

The findings of the current study have several important theoretical and practical implications. Theoretically, this study extends the focus of the research literature regarding the role of LSC and its elements in bystanders’ behaviors, as mentioned. Findings suggest that general LSC plays a key role in understanding bully-supporter and passive bystander behaviors in cyberspace. Furthermore, we found evidence that risk taking, self-centeredness, and impulsivity were also associated with bystanders’ behaviors beyond the associations between general LSC and these types of behaviors. The practical implications of this study highlight the importance of designing evidence-based interventions that take into consideration the LSC of cyberbully-supporters and passive bystanders. Accordingly, these interventions should focus on teaching them self-control skills (e.g., Ronen and Rosenbaum 2010), empathy skills, and awareness of the victim’s experiences (e.g., Schultze-Krumbholz et al. 2018).

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, R.S.-S.; methodology, M.L.; software, validation, M.L; formal analysis, M.L. and J.H.; investigation, R.S.-S.; resources, R.S.-S.; data curation; writing—original draft preparation, R.S.-S. and M.L.; writing—review and editing, R.S.-S. and M.L.; visualization, M.L. and J.H.; supervision, R.S.-S.; project administration, R.S.-S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Ethics Committee of Ono Academic College (protocol code 2101933ono, date of approval 22 September 2019).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author/s.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Allison, Kimberly R., and Kay Bussey. 2016. Cyber-Bystanding in Context: A Review of the Literature on Witnesses’ Responses to Cyberbullying. Children and Youth Services Review 65: 183–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Ando, Reiko, and Akira Sakamoto. 2008. The Effect of Cyber-Friends on Loneliness and Social Anxiety: Differences between High and Low Self-Evaluated Physical Attractiveness Groups. Computers in Human Behavior 24: 993–1009. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Arneklev, Bruce J., Harold G. Grasmick, Charles Tittle, and John Robert Bursik. 1993. Low Self-Control and Imprudent Behavior. Journal of Quantitative Criminology 9: 225–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Barlett, Christofer, Kristina Chamberlin, and Zachar Witkower. 2017. Predicting Cyberbullying Perpetration in Emerging Adults: A Theoretical Test of the Barlett Gentile Cyberbullying Model. Aggressive Behavior 43: 147–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Barlińska, Julia, Szuster Anna, and Winiewski Mikołaj. 2013. Cyberbullying Among Adolescent Bystanders: Role of The Communication Medium, Form of Violence, And Empathy. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology 23: 37–51. [Google Scholar]
  6. Barlińska, Julia, Szuster Anna, and Winiewski Mikołaj. 2018. Cyberbullying among Adolescent Bystanders: Role of Affective Versus Cognitive Empathy in Increasing Prosocial Cyberbystander Behavior. Frontiers in Psychology 9: 799. [Google Scholar]
  7. Bastiaensens, Sara, Vandebosch Heidi, Poels Karolien, Van Cleemput Katrine, Desmet Ann, and De Bourdeaudhuij Ilse. 2014. Cyberbullying on Social Network Sites: An Experimental Study into Bystanders’ Behavioural Intentions to Help the Victim or Reinforce The Bully. Computers in Human Behavior 31: 259–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Bastiaensens, Sara, Vandebosch Heidi, Poels Karolien, Van Cleemput Katrine, Desmet Ann, and De Bourdeaudhuij Ilse. 2015. Can I Afford to Help? How Affordances of Communication Modalities Guide Bystanders’ Helping Intentions Towards Harassment on Social Network Sites. Behaviour & Information Technology 34: 425–35. [Google Scholar]
  9. Bobbio, Antonella, and Karin Arbach. 2021. Validation of the Low Self-Control Scale Spanish Version: A bifactor model approach. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law 28: 418–34. [Google Scholar]
  10. Brownfield, David, and Ann Marie Sorenson. 1993. Self-Control and Juvenile Delinquency: Theoretical Issues and an Empirical Assessment of Selected Elements of a General Theory of Crime. Deviant Behavior 14: 243–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Campbell, Marilyn Anne, Chrystal Whiteford, Krystle Duncanson, Barbara Spears, Des Butler, and Phillip Thomas Slee. 2017. Cyberbullying Bystanders: Gender, Grade, and Actions among Primary and Secondary School Students in Australia. International Journal of Technoethics 8: 44–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Chamizo-Nieto, Maria Teresa, Rey Lourdes, and John Pellitteri. 2020. Gratitude and Emotional Intelligence as Protective Factors against Cyber-Aggression: Analysis of a Mediation Model. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17: 4475–85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  13. Chan, K. Tommy, Christy M. K. Cheung, Izak Benbasat, Bo Xiao, and Zach W. Leee. 2023. Bystanders Join in Cyberbullying on Social Networking Sites: The Deindividuation and Moral Disengagement Perspectives. Information Systems Research 34: 828–846. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Cho, Sunyung, and Deryol Rustu. 2020. Examining the Impacts of Low Self-Control and Online Lifestyles on Cyberbullying Perpetration among Korean Adolescents: Using Parallel Process Latent Growth Curve Modeling. Children and Youth Services Review 117: 105288. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Chui, Wing Hong, and Heng Choon (Oliver) Chan. 2013. Association between self-control and school bullying behaviors among Macanese adolescents. Child Abuse and Neglect 37: 237–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Conner, Bradley T., Judith A. Stein, and Douglas Longshore. 2009. Examining self-control as a multidimensional predictor of crime and drug use in adolescents with criminal histories. Journal of Behavioral Health Services and Research 36: 137–49. [Google Scholar]
  17. Coyne, Michelle Anne, and John Paul Wright. 2014. The stability of self-control across childhood. Personality and Individual Differences 69: 144–49. [Google Scholar]
  18. Das, Sanchari, Andrew Kim, and Sayar Karmakar. 2020. Change-Point Analysis of Cyberbullying-Related Twitter Discussions During COVID-19. Available online: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3669400 (accessed on 7 August 2020).
  19. DeLisi, Matt, and Michael G. Vaughn. 2008. The Gottfredson–Hirschi Critiques Revisited Reconciling Self-Control Theory, Criminal Careers, and Career Criminals. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 52: 520–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. DeSmet, Ann, Veldeman Charlene, Poels Karolien, Bastiaensens Sara, Van Cleemput Katrien, Vandebosch Heidi, and Bourdeaudhuij Ilse. 2014. Determinants of Self-Reported Bystander Behavior in Cyberbullying Incidents amongst Adolescents. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking 17: 207–15. [Google Scholar]
  21. Engel, Christoph. 2012. Low Self-Control as a Source of Crime: A Meta-Study. The Max Planck Institute for Research on Collective Goods. Reprint. No. 2012/4. Available online: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2012381 (accessed on 28 February 2012).
  22. Erreygers, Sara, Sara Pabian, Heidi Vandebosch, and Elfi Baillien. 2016. Helping Behavior among Adolescent Bystanders of Cyberbullying: The Role of Impulsivity. Learning and Individual Differences 48: 61–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Eyuboglu, Murat, Damla Eyuboglu, Pala Seva, Oktar Didem, Demirtas Zeynep, Arslantas Didem, and Unsal Alaettin. 2021. Traditional School Bullying and Cyberbullying: Prevalence, the Effect on Mental Health Problems and Self-Harm Behavior. Psychiatry Research 297: 113730. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  24. Forrest, Walter, Carter Hay, Alex O. Widdowson, and Michael Rocque. 2019. Development of Impulsivity and Risk-Seeking: Implications for the Dimensionality and Stability of Self-Control. Criminology 57: 512–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Gibson, Chris L., Jeffrey T. Ward, John Paul Wright, Kevin M. Beaver, and Matt DeLisi. 2010. Where does gender fit in the measurement of self-control? Criminal Justice and Behavior 37: 883–903. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. González-Cabrera, Joaquin Manuel, León-Mejía Ana, Machimbarrena Juan Manuel, Balea Angela, and Calvete Esther. 2019. Psychometric properties of the cyberbullying triangulation questionnaire: A prevalence analysis through seven roles. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 60: 160–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Gottfredson, Michael R. 2006. The Empirical Status of Control Theory in Criminology. In Taking Stock: The Status of Criminological Theory. Edited by Francis T. Cullen, John Paul Wright and Kristie R. Blevins. Piscataway: Transaction, pp. 77–100. [Google Scholar]
  28. Gottfredson, Michael R., and Travis Hirschi. 1990. A General Theory of Crime. Stanford: Stanford University Press. [Google Scholar]
  29. Grasmick, Harold G., Charles R. Tittle, and Bruce J. Arneklev. 1993. Testing the Core Empirical Implications of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s General Theory of Crime. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 30: 5–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Hay, Carter, and Ryan Meldrum. 2015. Self-Control and Crime Over the Life Course. Thousand Oaks: Sage. [Google Scholar]
  31. Higgins, E. George, Wasley G. Jennings, Tewksbury Richard, and Chris L. Gibson. 2009. Exploring the link between low self-control and violent victimization trajectories in adolescents. Criminal Justice and Behavior 36: 1070–84. [Google Scholar]
  32. Hinduja, Samir, and Justin W. Patchin. 2015. Bullying Beyond the Schoolyard: Preventing and Responding to Cyberbullying, 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks: Sage. [Google Scholar]
  33. Hirschi, Travis. 2004. Self-control and Crime. In Handbook of Self-Regulation: Research, Theory, and Applications. Edited by Roy F. Baumeister and Kathleen D. Vohs. New York: Guilford Press, pp. 537–52. [Google Scholar]
  34. Holt, Thomas J., Adam M. Bossler, and David C. May. 2012. Low Self-Control Deviant Peer Associations and Juvenile Cyberdeviance. American Journal of Criminal Justice 37: 378–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Holtfreter, Kristy, Kevin M. Beaver, Michael D. Reisig, and Travis C. Pratt. 2010. Low self-control and fraud Offending. Journal of Financial Crime 17: 295–307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Hu, Li-tze, and Peter M. Bentler. 1999. Cutoff Criteria for Fit Indexes in Covariance Structure Analysis: Conventional Criteria versus New Alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal 6: 1–55. [Google Scholar]
  37. Huijsmans, Twan, Nivette Amy, Eisner Manuel, and Denis Ribeaud. 2019. Social influences, peer delinquency, and low self-control: An examination of time-varying and reciprocal effects on delinquency over adolescence. European Journal of Criminology 18: 192–21. [Google Scholar]
  38. Jackson, Dylan B., Alexander Testa, and Michael G. Vaughn. 2020. Low Self-Control and the Adolescent Police Stop: Intrusiveness, Emotional Response, and Psychological Well-Being. Journal of Criminal Justice 66: 101635. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Jeyagobi, Sobana, Shalini Munusamy, Mohammad R. Kamaluddin, Abdul R. A. Badayai, and Jaya Kumar. 2022. Factors Influencing Negative Cyber-Bystander Behavior: A Systematic Literature Review. Frontiers in Public Health 10: 965017. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Karmakar, Sayyar, and Sanchari Das. 2020. Evaluating the Impact of COVID-19 on Cyberbullying through Bayesian Trend Analysis. In Proceedings of the European Interdisciplinary Cybersecurity Conference (EICC), co-located with European Cyber Week. New York: Association for Computing Machinery, pp. 1–6. [Google Scholar]
  41. Kazerooni, Franccesca, Samuel Hardman Taylor, Natalya N. Bazarova, and Janis Whitlock. 2018. Cyberbullying Bystander Intervention: The Number of Offenders and Retweeting Predict Likelihood of Helping a Cyberbullying Victim. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 23: 146–62. [Google Scholar]
  42. Kim, Jehoon, Lee Yeungieom, and Jennings G. Wesleyg. 2022. A Path from Traditional Bullying to Cyberbullying in South Korea: Examining the Roles of Self-Control and Deviant Peer Association in the Different Forms of Bullying. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 37: 5937–57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Kowalski, Robin M., Susan P. Limber, and Annie McCord. 2019. A Developmental Approach to Cyberbullying: Prevalence and Protective Factors. Aggression and Violent Behavior 45: 20–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Kozubal, Magdalena, Anna Szuster, and Julia Barlińska. 2019. Cyberbystanders, affective empathy and social norms. Studia Psychologica 61: 120–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. LaGrange, C. Teresa, and Robert A. Silverman. 1999. Low self-control and opportunity: Testing the general theory of crime as an explanation for gender differences in delinquency. Criminology 37: 41–72. [Google Scholar]
  46. Levy, Michal, and Revital Sela-Shayovitz. 2020. Cyber-aggression: The effect of parental mediation on bystander roles. International Journal of Child, Youth and Family 11: 13–36. [Google Scholar]
  47. Li, Carrie KW, Thomas J. Holt, Adam M. Bossler, and David C. May. 2016. Examining the mediating effects of social learning on the low self-control cyberbullying relationship in a youth sample. Deviant Behavior 37: 126–38. [Google Scholar]
  48. Lianos, Helen, and Andrew McGrath. 2018. Can the General Theory of Crime and General Strain Theory Explain Cyberbullying Perpetration? Crime & Delinquency 64: 674–700. [Google Scholar]
  49. Loeber, Rolf, David P. Farrington, Magda Stouthamer-Loeber, and Welmoet B. Van Kammen. 1998. Antisocial Behavior and Mental Health Problems: Explanatory Factors in Childhood and Adolescence. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum. [Google Scholar]
  50. Longshore, Douglas. 1998. Self-Control and Criminal Opportunity: A Prospective Test of the General Theory of Crime. Social Problems 45: 102–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Longshore, Douglas, Judith A. Stein, and Susan Turner. 1998. Reliability and validity of a self-control measure: Rejoinder. Criminology 36: 175–82. [Google Scholar]
  52. Macaulay, Peter J. R., Lucy R. Betts, James Stiller, and Blerina Kellezi. 2022. Bystander Responses to Cyberbullying: The Role of Perceived Severity, Publicity, Anonymity, Type of Cyberbullying, and Victim Response. Computers in Human Behavior 131: 107238. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. MacCallum, Robert, Taehun Lee, and Michael W. Browne. 2010. The issue of isopower in power analysis for tests of structural equation models. Structural Equation Modeling 17: 23–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Macháčková, Hana, and Jan Pfetsch. 2016. Bystanders’ Responses to Offline Bullying and Cyberbullying: The Role of Empathy and Normative Beliefs about Aggression. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 57: 169–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Macháčková, Hana, Dedkova Lenka, and Mezulanikova Katerina. 2015. Brief Report: The Bystander Effect in Cyberbullying Incidents. Journal of Adolescence 43: 96–99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Macháčková, Hana, Lenka Dedkova, Anna Sevcikova, and Alena Cerna. 2013. Bystanders’ Support of Cyberbullied Schoolmates. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology 23: 25–36. [Google Scholar]
  57. Macháčková, Hana, Lenka Dedkova, Anna Sevcikova, and Alena Cerna. 2018. Bystanders’ Supportive and Passive Responses to Cyberaggression. Journal of School Violence 17: 99–110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Marcus, Brend. 2004. Self-Control in the General Theory of Crime: Theoretical Implications of a Measurement Problem. Theoretical Criminology 8: 33–55. [Google Scholar]
  59. Meldrum, Ryan C., Jacob T. N. Young, and Frank M. Weerman. 2012. Changes in self-control during adolescence: Investigating the influence of the adolescent peer network. Journal of Criminal Justice 40: 452–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Menesini, Erislia, Annalaura Nocentini, Benedetta E. Palladino, Ann Frisen, Sofia Berne, Rosario Ortega-Ruiz, Juan Calmastera, Herbert Scheithauer, Anja Schultze-Krumbholz, Piret Luik, and et al. 2012. Cyberbullying Definition among Adolescents: A comparison across Six European Countries. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking 15: 455–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Menesini, Ersilia, Elena Codecasa, Beatrice Benelli, and Helen Cowie. 2003. Enhancing Children’s Responsibility to Take Action against Bullying: Evaluation of a Befriending Intervention in Italian Middle Schools. Aggressive Behavior 29: 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Menin, Damiani, Annalisa Guarini, Consuelo Mameli, Grace Skrzypiec, and Antone Brighi. 2021. Was That (Cyber)Bullying? Investigating the Operational Definitions of Bullying and Cyberbullying from Adolescents’ Perspective. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology 21: 2–8. [Google Scholar]
  63. Moffitt, Terrie E., Louise Arseneault, Daniel Belsky, Nigel Dickson, Robert J. Hancox, HonaLee Harrington, Renate Houts, Richie Poulton, Brent W. Roberts, Stephen Ross, and et al. 2011. A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 108: 2693–2698. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  64. Moretti, Constanza, and Damián Herkovits. 2021. Victims, Perpetrators, and Bystanders: A Meta-Ethnography of Roles in Cyberbullying. Cadernos de Saúde Pública 37: 1–18. [Google Scholar]
  65. Morin, Alexandre J. S., A. Katrin Arens, and Herbert W. Marsh. 2016. A bifactor exploratory structural equation modeling framework for the identification of distinct sources of construct-relevant psychometric multidimensionality. Structural Equation Modeling 23: 116–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Na, Chongmin, and Raymond Paternoster. 2012. Can self-control change substantially over time? Rethinking the relationship between self-and social control. Criminology 50: 427–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Nazir, Thessen, and Liyana Thabassum. 2021. Cyberbullying: Definition, Types, Effects, Related Factors and Precautions to be Taken During COVID-19 Pandemic. The International Journal of Indian Psychology 9: 480–91. [Google Scholar]
  68. Nixon, Charisee L. 2014. Current Perspectives: The Impact of Cyberbullying on Adolescent Health. Adolescent Health, Medicine and Therapeutics 20: 143–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Nocentini, Annalaura, Tyler Colasante, Tina Malti, and Ersilia Menesini. 2020. In My Defence or Yours: Children’s Guilt Subtypes and Bystander Roles in Bullying. European Journal of Developmental Psychology 17: 926–42. [Google Scholar]
  70. Nodeland, Brooke. 2020. The Effects of Self-Control on the Cyber Victim-Offender Overlap. International Journal of Cybersecurity Intelligence and Cybercrime 3: 4–24. [Google Scholar]
  71. Oh, Insoo, and Richard J. Hazler. 2009. Contributions of personal and situational factors to bystanders’ reactions to school bullying. School Psychology International 30: 291–310. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Olweus, Dan. 1993. Bullying at School: What We Know and What We Can Do. Oxford and Cambridge: Blackwell. [Google Scholar]
  73. Olweus, Dan, and Susan P. Limber. 2018. Some Problems with Cyberbullying Research. Current Opinion in Psychology 19: 139–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  74. Panumaporn, Jidapa, Sirichai Hongsanguansri, Wanlop Atsariyasing, and Komsan Kiatrungrit. 2020. Bystanders’ Behaviours and Associated Factors in cyberbullying. General Psychiatry 33: 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. Patchin, Justin W., and Sameer Hinduja. 2010. Trends in Online Social Networking: Adolescent Use of MySpace over Time. New Media & Society 12: 197–216. [Google Scholar]
  76. Pechorro, Pedro, Matt DeLisi, Catrina Pacheco, Gonçalves R. Abrunhosa, Joao Maroco, and Jorge Quintas. 2022. Examination of Grasmick et al.’s Low Self-Control Scale and of a Short Version with Cross-Gender Measurement Invariance. Crime & Delinquency 69: 1–24. [Google Scholar]
  77. Peled, Yehuda. 2019. Cyberbullying and its Influence on the Academic, Social, and Emotional Development of Undergraduate Students. Heliyon 5: e01393. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  78. Peter, Ira-Kathrina, and Franz Petermann. 2018. Cyberbullying: A concept analysis of defining attributes and additional influencing factors. Computers in Human Behavior 86: 350–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  79. Piquero, Alex R., and Andre B. Rosay. 1998. The Reliability and Validity of Grasmick et al.’s Self-Control Scale: A Comment on Longshore et al. Criminology 36: 157–73. [Google Scholar]
  80. Pittman, Mattew, and Brandon Reich. 2016. Social Media and Loneliness: Why an Instagram Picture May be Worth More Than a Thousand Twitter Words. Computers in Human Behavior 62: 155–67. [Google Scholar]
  81. Polanco-Levicán, Karina, and Sonia Salvo-Garrido. 2021. Bystander Roles in Cyberbullying: A Mini-Review of Who, How Many, and Why. Frontiers in Psychology 12: 676787. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  82. Pozzoli, Tizina, and Gianluca Gini. 2010. Active Defending and Passive Bystanding Behavior in Bullying: The Role of Personal Characteristics and Perceived Peer Pressure. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 38: 815–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  83. Pozzoli, Tizina, Gianluca Gini, and Robert Thornberg. 2017. Getting Angry Matters: Going Beyond Perspective Taking and Empathic Concern to Understand Bystanders’ Behavior in Bullying. Journal of Adolescence 61: 87–95. [Google Scholar]
  84. Pratt, Travis C. 2016. A Self-Control/Life-Course Theory of Criminal Behavior. European Journal of Criminology 13: 129–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  85. Pratt, Travis C., and Francis T. Cullen. 2000. The Empirical Status of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s General Theory of Crime: A Meta-Analysis. Criminology 38: 931–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  86. Putnick, Diane L., and Marc H. Bornstein. 2016. Measurement invariance conventions and reporting: The state of the art and future directions for psychological research. Developmental Review 41: 71–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  87. Ray, James V., Shayne Jones, Thomas A. Loughran, and Wesley G. Jennings. 2013. Testing the stability of self-control: Identifying unique developmental patterns and associated risk factors. Criminal Justice and Behavior 40: 588–607. [Google Scholar]
  88. Reise, Steve P. 2012. Invited Paper: The Rediscovery of Bifactor Measurement Models. Multivariate Behavioral Research 47: 667–96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  89. Rocque, Michael, Chad Posick, and Alex R. Piquero. 2016. Self-Control and Crime: Theory, Research, and Remaining Puzzles. In Handbook of Self-Regulation. Edited by Roy F. Baumeister and Kathleen Vohs. New York: Guilford Press, pp. 513–32. [Google Scholar]
  90. Ronen, Tammie, and Michael Rosenbaum. 2010. Developing Learned Resourcefulness in Adolescents to Help Them Reduce their Aggressive Behavior: Preliminary Findings. Research on Social Work Practice 20: 410–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  91. Salmivalli, Christina. 2010. Bullying and the Peer Group: A Review. Aggression and Violent Behavior 15: 112–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  92. Salmivalli, Christina, and Marinus Voeten. 2004. Connections between Attitudes, Group Norms, and Behaviour in Bullying Situations. International Journal of Behavioral Development 28: 246–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  93. Savage, Matthew W., and Roberts S. Tokunaga. 2017. Moving Toward a Theory: Testing an Integrated Model of Cyberbullying Perpetration, Aggression, Social Skills, and Internet Self-Efficacy. Computers in Human Behavior 71: 353–61. [Google Scholar]
  94. Schreiber, James B., Amaury Nora, Frances K. Stage, Elizabeth A. Barlow, and Jamie King. 2006. Reporting Structural Equation Modeling and Confirmatory Factor Analysis Results: A Review. The Journal of Educational Research 99: 323–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  95. Schultze-Krumbholz, Anja, Markus Hess, Jan Pfetsch, and Herbert Scheithauer. 2018. Who Is Involved in Cyberbullying? Latent Class Analysis of Cyberbullying Roles and Their Associations with Aggression, Self-Esteem, and Empathy. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace 12: 2. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  96. Selkie, Ellan M., Jessica L. Fales, and Megan A. Moreno. 2016. Cyberbullying Prevalence among US Middle and High School–Aged Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Quality Assessment. Journal of Adolescent Health 58: 125–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  97. Shadmanfaat, Seyyed Masoomeh, C. Jordan Howell, Caitlyn N. Muniz, John K. Cochran, Saeed Kabiri, and Eva M. Fontaine. 2019. Cyberbullying Perpetration: An Empirical Test of Social Learning Theory in Iran. Deviant Behavior 41: 278–93. [Google Scholar]
  98. Spadafora, Natalie, Zopito A. Marini, and Anthony A. Volk. 2020. Should I Defend or Should I Go? An Adaptive, Qualitative Examination of the Personal Costs and Benefits Associated with Bullying Intervention. Canadian Journal of School Psychology 35: 23–40. [Google Scholar]
  99. Suler, John. 2004. The Online Disinhibition Effect. Cyberpsychology and Behavior 7: 321–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  100. Turel, Ofir, Christian Matt, John Cheung, Trenz Mmanuel, John D’Arcy, Hamed Qahri-Saremni, and Monideepa Tarafdar. 2019. Panel report: The dark side of the digitization of the individual. Internet Research 29: 274–88. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  101. Vaillancourt, Tracy, Robert Faris, and Faye Mishna. 2017. Cyberbullying in Children and Youth: Implications for Health and Clinical Practice. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 62: 368–73. [Google Scholar]
  102. Van Cleemput, Katherine, Heidi Vandebosch, and Sara Pabian. 2014. Personal Characteristics and Contextual Factors that Determine “Helping,” “Joining in,” and “Doing Nothing” When Witnessing Cyberbullying. Aggressive Behavior 40: 383–96. [Google Scholar]
  103. Vandebosch, Heidi, Luc Beirens, Wim D. Haese, Denis Wegge, and Sara Pabian. 2012. Police Actions with Regard to Cyberbullying: The Belgian Case. Psicothema 24: 646–52. [Google Scholar]
  104. Vandenberg, Robert J., and Charles E. Lance. 2000. A review and synthesis of the measurement invariance literature: Suggestions, practices, and recommendations for organizational research. Organizational Research Methods 3: 4–70. [Google Scholar]
  105. Vazsonyi, Alexander T., Hanna Machackova, Anna Sevcikova, David Smahel, and Alena Cerna. 2012. Cyberbullying in Context: Direct and Indirect Effects by Low Self-Control across 25 European Countries. European Journal of Developmental Psychology 9: 210–27. [Google Scholar]
  106. Vazsonyi, Alexander T., Lloyd E. Pickering, Marianna Junger, and Dick Hessing. 2001. An Empirical Test of a General Theory of Crime: A Four-Nation Comparative Study of Self-Control and the Prediction of Deviance. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 38: 91–131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  107. Vazsonyi, Alexander T., Jacob Mikuška, and Erin L. Kelley. 2017. It’s Time: A Meta-Analysis on the Self-Control-Deviance Link. Journal of Criminal Justice 48: 48–63. [Google Scholar]
  108. Vismara, Matteo, Nicolaja Girone, Dario Conti, Gregorio Nicolini, and Bernardo Dell’Osso. 2022. The Current Status of Cyberbullying Research: A Short Review of the Literature. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences 46: 101152. [Google Scholar]
  109. Wachs, Sebastian, and Michelle F. Wright. 2018. Associations between Bystanders and Perpetrators of Online Hate: The Moderating Role of Toxic Online Disinhibition. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15: 2030. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  110. Walters, Glen D. 2016. Low Self-Control, Peer Rejection, Reactive Criminal Thinking, and Delinquent Peer Associations: Connecting the Pieces of the Crime Puzzle. Journal of Developmental and Life Course Criminology 2: 209–31. [Google Scholar]
  111. Ward, Jeffry T., John H. Boman, and Shayne Jones. 2015. Hirschi’s Redefined Self-Control: Assessing the Implications of the Merger between Social- and Self-Control Theories. Crime and Delinquency 61: 1206–33. [Google Scholar]
Socsci 13 00064 g001
Figure 1. SEM analysis of bifactor model (G-factor and S-factors) as a predictor of cyberbullying bystander behaviors while controlling for gender and age. Notes. Values of regression loadings are standardized; model fit indices: χ2/df ratio = 1.99, TLI (Tucker-Lewis fit index) = 0.92, CFI (comparative fit index) = 0.94, RMSEA (root mean square error of approximation) = 0.04, SRMR = 0.05, AIC (Akaike information criterion) = 597.61. * (p < 0.05), ** (p < 0.01), *** (p < 0.001).
Figure 1. SEM analysis of bifactor model (G-factor and S-factors) as a predictor of cyberbullying bystander behaviors while controlling for gender and age. Notes. Values of regression loadings are standardized; model fit indices: χ2/df ratio = 1.99, TLI (Tucker-Lewis fit index) = 0.92, CFI (comparative fit index) = 0.94, RMSEA (root mean square error of approximation) = 0.04, SRMR = 0.05, AIC (Akaike information criterion) = 597.61. * (p < 0.05), ** (p < 0.01), *** (p < 0.001).
Socsci 13 00064 g001
Table 1. Confirmatory factor analysis (cfa) of the bystander behavior three-factor model.
Table 1. Confirmatory factor analysis (cfa) of the bystander behavior three-factor model.
Model 1
DF BSPB
1.
You sent a message to the whole group demanding that they stop the aggression against the victim
0.71
2.
You sent messages to others asking them to help the victim
0.68
3.
You notified an adult (parent, teacher, principal, counselor) about the victim’s online abuse
0.68
4.
After the event, you went with the victim to get help
0.75
5.
You encouraged others to send the abusive messages to the victim
 0.85
6.
You spread the offensive messages or offensive photos about the victim on other social networks.
 0.86
7.
You responded with laughter to the insult (you sent comments like: “ha, ha” or a laughing emoji)
 0.66
8.
You read the offensive messages sent to the victim, however you did not respond.
 0.61
9.
You preferred to disconnect and not follow what was happening
 0.54
10.
You ignored the offensive messages that were sent to the victim.
 0.49
% variance explained 80%32%44%
Cronbach’s alpha (α) 0.800.820.56
Note. DF = defender; BS = bully-supporter; PB = passive bystander; factor loadings are standardized; model fit indices: χ2/df ratio = 1.78, TLI (Tucker-Lewis fit index) = 0.97, CFI (comparative fit index) = 0.98, RMSEA (root mean square error of approximation) = 0.04, SRMR = 0.04.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics (N = 501).
Table 2. Descriptive statistics (N = 501).
MeanSDSkewnessKurtosisMultivariate
Kurtosis		c.r.MinMax
1.
Risk taking
2.010.880.820.159.9616.091.005.00
2.
Self-centeredness
2.140.830.820.498.1513.161.005.00
3.
Impulsivity
2.180.840.680.273.966.391.005.00
4.
General LSC
2.260.610.540.7948.1829.421.005.00
5.
Victim-defender
2.271.000.52−0.555.498.861.005.00
6.
Passive bystander
2.300.900.26−0.661.553.171.005.00
7.
Bully-supporter
1.250.583.0710.4666.73136.341.005.00
8.
Gender
1.660.48−0.67−1.56−1.54−7.031.002.00
9.
Age
16.311.34−0.28−1.111.547.041.002.00
Note. c.r. = critical ratio.
Table 3. Spearman correlations between averaged scores of general lsc, lsc subcomponents, cyberbullying bystander behaviors, and demographic variables (N = 501).
Table 3. Spearman correlations between averaged scores of general lsc, lsc subcomponents, cyberbullying bystander behaviors, and demographic variables (N = 501).
23456789
1.
Risk taking
0.38 ***0.34 ***0.68 ***0.15 ***0.18 ***0.30 ***−0.12 **−0.10 *
2.
Self-centeredness
 0.43 ***0.65 ***0.010.33 ***0.29 ***−0.14 **−0.06
3.
Impulsivity
 0.72 ***0.010.28 ***0.30 ***−0.02−0.08
4.
General LSC
 0.10 *0.25 ***0.34 ***−0.08−0.14 ***
5.
Victim-defender
 −0.010.16 ***0.030.03
6.
Passive bystander
 0.24 ***−0.10 *0.01
7.
Bully-supporter
 −0.17 ***−0.01
8.
Gender
 0.07
9.
Age
 -
Note. * (p < 0.05), ** (p < 0.01), *** (p < 0.001).
Table 4. CFA fit indices of the four models of low self-control (N = 501).
Table 4. CFA fit indices of the four models of low self-control (N = 501).
Modelχ2df CMIN/DF CFI TLIRMSEA SRMRAIC
Unidimensional model (general LSC)475.36548.800.750.690.130.04523.36
Multidimensional model 182.08513.570.920.900.070.05235.71
Second order model182.08513.570.920.900.070.05235.71
Bifactor model128.39423.060.950.920.060.04200.14
Note: CMIN/DF = chi-square on degrees of freedom; TLI = Tucker-Lewis fit index; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; AIC = Akaike information criterion. p < 0.001.
Table 5. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) regression weights of the unidimensional, multidimensional, second order factor, and bifactor models of LSC.
Table 5. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) regression weights of the unidimensional, multidimensional, second order factor, and bifactor models of LSC.
Model 1Model 2Model 3Model 4
Unidimensional Model of LSCMultidimensional Correlated ModelSecond Order Factor ModelBifactor Models
ItemsGeneral LSCRiskSelf-CentImpulRiskSelf-CentImpulSecond Factor LSCRiskSelf-CentImpulGeneral LSC
1.
I like to test myself every now and then by doing something a little risky.
0.630.77 0.77 0.690.72 0.47
2.
Sometimes, I will take a risk just for the fun of it.
0.580.64 0.64 0.38 0.49
3.
I sometimes find it exciting to do things for which I might get in trouble.
0.670.74 0.74 0.50 0.54
4.
Excitement and adventure are more important to me than security.
0.650.68 0.68 0.38 0.52
5.
I try to look out for myself first, even if it means making things difficult for other people.
0.46 0.67 0.67 0.69 0.49 0.46
6.
I’m not very sympathetic to other people when they are having problems.
0.43 0.53 0.53 0.36 0.38
7.
If things I do upset people, it’s their problem, not mine.
0.48 0.67 0.67 0.59 0.42
8.
I will try to get the things I want even when I know it’s causing problems for other people.
0.54 0.65 0.65 0.38 0.52
9.
I don’t devote much thought and effort to preparing for the future.
0.38 0.44 0.440.98 0.340.37
10.
I often act on the spur of the moment.
0.56 0.57 0.57 −0.170.65
11.
I’m more concerned with what happens to me in the short run than in the long run.
0.53 0.62 0.62 0.430.56
12.
I often do whatever brings me pleasure here and now, even at the cost of some distant goal.
0.60 0.72 0.72 0.240.67
% variance explained- ---0.470.480.95
Cronbach’s alpha (α)0.830.790.720.65
McDonald’s ω0.840.800.730.66
Note. Risk = risk taking, Self-cent = self-centeredness, Impul = impulsivity; all factor loadings were standardized and significant (p < 0.001), except for item 10 (“I often act on the spur of the moment”), regressed on the impulsivity factor in the bifactor model. Factor correlations between LSC latent variables in the multidimensional correlated model: risk-taking <--> self-centeredness = 0.18; self-centeredness <--> impulsivity = 0.26; risk-taking <--> impulsivity = 0.38. All factor correlations were significant at p < 0.001.
Table 6. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) regression weights of the bystander behaviors and LSC bifactor measurement models.
Table 6. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) regression weights of the bystander behaviors and LSC bifactor measurement models.
LSC Bifactor Measurement ModelRiskSelf-CentImpulGeneral LSCDFBSPB
1.
I like to test myself every now and then by doing something a little risky.
0.66 0.47
2.
Sometimes, I will take a risk just for the fun of it.
0.40 0.48
3.
I sometimes find it exciting to do things for which I might get in trouble.
0.55 0.52
4.
Excitement and adventure are more important to me than security.
0.43 0.52
5.
I try to look out for myself first, even if it means making things difficult for other people.
 0.48 0.46
6.
I’m not very sympathetic to other people when they are having problems.
 0.43 0.36
7.
If things I do upset people, it’s their problem, not mine.
 0.52 0.44
8.
I will try to get the things I want even when I know it’s causing problems for other people.
 0.39 0.51
9.
I don’t devote much thought and effort to preparing for the future.
 0.400.35
10.
I often act on the spur of the moment.
 0.060.59
11.
I’m more concerned with what happens to me in the short run than in the long run.
 0.290.57
12.
I often do whatever brings me pleasure here and now, even at the cost of some distant goal.
 0.320.65
13.
You sent a message to the whole group demanding that they stop the aggression against the victim.
 0.71
14.
You sent messages to others asking them to help the victim.
 0.68
15.
You notified an adult (parent, teacher, principal, counselor) about the victim’s online abuse.
 0.67
16.
After the event, you went with the victim to get help.
 0.75
17.
You encouraged others to send the abusive messages to the victim.
 0.84
18.
You spread the offensive messages or offensive photos about the victim on other social networks.
 0.86
19.
You responded with laughter to the insult (you sent comments like: “ha, ha” or a laughing emoji).
 0.67
20.
You read the offensive messages sent to the victim, however you did not respond.
 0.61
21.
You preferred to disconnect and not follow what was happening.
 0.55
22.
You ignored the offensive messages that were sent to the victim.
 0.49
% variance explained0.100.080.130.000.150.740.34
Note. Risk = risk taking, Self-cent = self-centeredness, Impul = impulsivity; DF = defender; BS = bully-supporter; PB = passive bystander; all factor loadings were standardized and significant (p < 0.001), except for the item 10 (“I often act on the spur of the moment”) that was regressed on the impulsivity factor in the bifactor model.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Sela-Shayovitz, R.; Levy, M.; Hasson, J. The Role of Self-Control in Cyberbullying Bystander Behavior. Soc. Sci. 2024, 13, 64. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci13010064

AMA Style

Sela-Shayovitz R, Levy M, Hasson J. The Role of Self-Control in Cyberbullying Bystander Behavior. Social Sciences. 2024; 13(1):64. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci13010064

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sela-Shayovitz, Revital, Michal Levy, and Jonathan Hasson. 2024. "The Role of Self-Control in Cyberbullying Bystander Behavior" Social Sciences 13, no. 1: 64. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci13010064

APA Style

Sela-Shayovitz, R., Levy, M., & Hasson, J. (2024). The Role of Self-Control in Cyberbullying Bystander Behavior. Social Sciences, 13(1), 64. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci13010064

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop