Schooling, Identity, and Nationhood: Karen Mother-Tongue-Based Education in the Thai–Burmese Border Region
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- (1)
- A system in Karen State/Kawthoolei in Burma under the administration of the Karen National Union’s (KNU) Karen Education and Culture Department;
- (2)
- Karen education programs in Thai refugee camps administered by Karen Refugee Committee Education Entity (KRC Education Entity); and
- (3)
- Migrant Karen schools under the Burmese Migrant Worker’s Education Committee (BMWEC) in Tak Province, Thailand.
1.1. The Story of the Karen
1.2. Imagining Karen Political Communities
1.2.1. Today’s Karen Political Consciousness, Gemeinschaft, and the International System
1.2.2. The Three Systems of Independent Karen Education
1.3. Beyond Nationalism and Gemeinschaft
2. The Development of Karen Education, 1840s to the Present
2.1. Karen Education in Nineteenth Century
2.2. Karen Educational Autonomy before 1962
2.3. The Emergence of Independent Karen School Systems in Burma and Thailand
The most compelling aspect of Karen education in these borderlands is that it is a transborder system of non-state education developed independently from the Burmese state. It owes its existence to a combination of structural and ideological circumstances. These include the KNU’s ethnic agenda, the poor resourcing of the Burmese government, harsh and inaccessible terrain in a context of armed conflict, and a border context of refugee settlements. The latter were established on the Thai side with minimal assistance from the Thai government, and then resourced by the refugee communities and later by [International Non-governmental Organizations].
2.4. Independent Karen Education in Thailand Today (Refugee Camps, and Migrant Centers)
- -
- Every Karen shall learn his own literature and language
- -
- Every Karen shall be acquainted with Karen history
- -
- The Karen culture, customs, and traditions shall be promoted
- -
- Our own Karen culture, customs, and traditions shall be made to be respected by the other ethnic nationalities, and the cultures, customs, and traditions of the other ethnic nationalities shall mutually be recognized and respected. (quoted in Lall 2021, p. 251).
3. Karen Education Curriculum and Administration
3.1. Karen Education in Refugee Camps
3.1.1. Refugee School Curriculum
3.1.2. Examples of the KRC/KNU Refugee School Curriculum
- Karen poetry (Hta)—Karen poetry is studied from Grade 6–8 in the Karen subject. The writing style of the Karen essay is studied, drawing from Karen Hta literary styles. Beginning in Grade 8,, the varieties of Karen Hta and its interpretation are reviewed. In Grade 9 and 10 of the Karen subject, different classifications of Karen Hta and its history are studied. (KECD 2022). The details of Karen Hta refer to what writer Saw Taw calls a kind of Karen Poetry (Karen Baptist Theological Seminary, Rangoon (Saw Taw 2014, in Karen).
- Aung San—General Aung San is not specifically mentioned in the Karen history curriculum and is mentioned only in a brief history of the Burma revolutionary movement. The conflict between the Burmese Independence Army commanded by General Aung San and the Karen during World War II is described in History in Grade 7, including the massacres of Karen undertaken by General Aung San’s army.
- Saw Ba U Gyi—Saw Ba U Gyi is studied in Karen school in Grade 6 and Grade 10 as the national hero and father of the nation. In Grade 6, Saw Ba U Gyi’s biography is also studied in both Burmese and Karen subjects. His writing is studied in Grade 10 and 11 in Karen History. Saw Ba U Gyi’s writing was originally in English, and the Grade 10 and 11 materials about him are taught in English (KECD 2022).
- Religious diversity—is studied in Grade 6, 7, 9, and 10 of Social Studies. In Grade 6, 7, and 9, it is studied in the Karen language, and English in Grade 10 is discussed. The importance of religion and the religious diversity of Burma, including Christianity, Islam, Hindu, and Buddhism are studied (KECD 2022).
3.1.3. Teacher Training and Examinations
3.2. Karen Education in Thai Border: International Migrant Learning Centers
3.2.1. Education System/Curriculum of Learning Centers
3.2.2. Articulation with Thai and Higher Education Systems
4. Challenges in Karen Education
4.1. The Karen Imagined Community and Schools
4.2. Karen Gemeinschaft and The International Nation-State System
….the political context of the border is strongly tied up in ethno-nationalist driven armed conflict, the legitimacy of non-state armed groups … as governance bodies in education is disputed within the framework of the central state government. From the state perspective, it is the Burmese Ministry of Education alone, with its Burmese language curriculum, that is the rightful administrator of education across the country…..
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
1 | The name “Burma” is used to reflect the pro-democracy movement’s dismissal of the decision made by the military regime in 1989 to change the country’s name from Burma to Myanmar. The term “Burmese” is used to refer to ethnic Bamar or language spoken by them. In this article, Bamar and Burmese are used interchangeably (see also Oh et al. 2021). |
2 | Karen names are represented with Karen characters. Note to journal: in the event this paper is accepted, we will provide the publisher with Karen software compatible with your system. |
3 | When writer George Orwell was a policeman in Burma between 1921 and 1926, he spoke Burmese and Karen and attended Karen churches (see, e.g., Hitchens 2002, p. 31). |
4 | See various descriptions of Karen historiography and ethnicization in (Gravers 2015). Mirante (1993), Alwyn (2021), Saw Aung Hla (2014) (in Karen), Lall (2021) are also good sources for understanding how Karen history has developed. |
5 | “Kawthoolei” is the name of the Karen Nation and literally is translated as “land of flower” or land with flower plants grown in Karenland called ‘Thoolei—in the Karen language. |
6 | Saw Ba U Gyi was a charismatic figure born in Bassein in 1905 to a wealthy land-owning Karen family (see Keenan 2008). Bassein at the time was the site of a large Christian mission station where Karen medium language schooling flourished, following the establishment of primary and secondary curriculum in the late nineteenth century. Bassein in the Irrawaddy River Delta was a center for Karen society at that time. After completing his degree at Rangoon University in 1925, Saw Ba U Gyi went to London and became a lawyer. He served as Information, Transportation, and Communications Minister in the governments of British Burma between 1938 and 1947. During World War II, he wrote his Four Principles for Karen Independence that are still well-known today and include: (1) For us, surrender is out of the question; (2) The recognition of Karen State must be complete; (3) We shall retain our arms; and (4) We shall decide our own political destiny (Keenan 2008). Fears of Burma soldiers among the Karen populations date back to pre-colonial times when many Karen were held by Burmese nobles in forms of bondage; as a result, the arrival of the British was welcomed by many Karen. Beginning in the 1920s, the British began to form Karen military units to support the colonial enterprise against rebellions erupting in Bamar areas. During the invasion of Burma by Japan, the Burmese Independence Army (BIA) under General Aung San cooperated with the Japanese and, during the invasion, massacred Karen villagers. In just Myaungmya, as many as 1800 Karen were massacred by the BIA (Callahan 2003, p. 75). |
7 | See Cornell and Hartmann (2006, p. 170). |
8 | A good description of the Karen consciousness in rural areas is found in Ashley South’s 2017 article “Peace and Trust in the Karen Hills” in The Irrawaddy Magazine. The world governed by the KNU is one with Karen institutions politically and socially independent from Myanmar. The dominant language is Karen, and Burmese is little understood. Schools and other institutions are conducted in Karen. Myanmar is a source of fear since that is where the Burmese military and Air Force come from. See https://www.irrawaddy.com/opinion/guest-column/peace-and-trust-in-the-karen-hills.html, accessed on 1 March 2023. |
9 | Karen is also absent from Thailand’s history curriculum, even though approximately one million Karen currently live in Thailand and are Thai citizens. In Thailand, however, the Karen are not a source of separatist consciousness, as they are in Burma. |
10 | See Saw Eh Htoo (2021) for a full discussion on “Burmanization Policies”. |
11 | An example reported in the Karen News from 2016 describes precisely how this was done in a school under “joint administration “ by the KNU and the Myanmar Ministry of Education. Flags are well-known in the Karen community to be targets for Burmese soldiers, particularly in the areas administered solely by the KNU. |
12 | James C. Scott (1998, 2009) has written about how bureaucracies of any sort seek to classify and simplify through the written medium in his book Seeing Like a State, which indeed has much in common with Benedict Anderson’s Imagined Communities. In his follow-up book, The Art of Not being Governed (Scott 2009, pp. 222–24), he writes specifically about the relationship of the Karen and how they lost writing, as they were persecuted by the lowland Burmese. Saw Alwyn (2021) writes specifically about this with respect to the writings of the Karen historian Saw Aung Hla. |
13 | See Kuroiwa and Verkuyten (2008) for an excellent overview of how young Karen students studying in Mae Sot in Thailand viewed Karen identity vis a vis the Burmese. A point of this article is that at the schools where these students studied there were new ideas about what it meant to be Karen emerging. See also (Pwe 2018). |
14 | The modern Karen State (Kayin in Burmese) was created only in 1952, which is the date when, administratively, the Burmese state began to expand into the highlands. The boundaries only roughly approximated the traditional Karen boundaries, and large numbers of Karen continued to be found in other provinces and the capital Rangoon. The KNU today administers schools in parts of the Karen State, as well as portions in neighboring states. |
15 | Violence and discontent were not confined to ethnic minorities. There was widespread discontent among the urban-based Bamar populations as well. This erupted in massive demonstrations in 1988 and after. The army suppressed these demonstrations violently as well. |
16 | The Karen Refugee Committee is a community-based humanitarian organization formed in 1978 in response to the refugee crisis at the Thailand–Burma border. KRC has been playing an important role in terms of camp management and coordination between local non-governmental Organizations, international non-governmental organizations, Thai government, UN agencies, and community-based organizations. |
17 | These countries are Australia, America, United Kingdom, Norway, Sweden, Finland, New Zealand, Denmark, Netherland, Ireland, Canada, Japan, South Korea, and Czech Republic. The Border Consortium and international NGOs providing services for more than three decades reported by the The Border Consortium that as of September 2020, Thailand officially hosts 71,861 refugees living in seven Karen refugee camps, of which 33,957 are registered refugees and 37,904 are unregistered. The earliest groups of refugees were mainly ethnic Karen. After 1988’s student uprising in Burma, many students fled to the Thai border and became refugees. Those students were from different ethnic groups such as Karenni, Kachin, Mon, Pa-O, Arakan, Shan, Naga, Bamar, Muslim, and other smaller ethnic groups. However, in 2017 more than 80 percent of refugees in Thailand, according to the International Organization for Migration are ethnic Karen. |
18 | The word “Entity” is used in the title of “Karen Refugee Education Entity” in order to avoid terms such as “Ministry” or “Department”, which in international relations imply sovereignty for an “entity.” Pseudo-sovereignty is what the “Karen Refugee Committee” in fact exercise in their development of curriculum, schools, and other governmental functions in the interstitial spaces between the KNU government, Burmese government, Thai government, UN agencies, and international non-governmental organizations. |
19 | |
20 | The senior author of this paper attends meetings in his role as an educational administrator where this issue is discussed. Administrators in Karen schools generally encourage students to study Burmese as a second language, but particularly students in the refugee camps will not sign up for the courses. On the other hand, Burmese is the medium of instruction in some migrant schools in Thailand, and Karen students who feel capable of handling the courses do attend. |
21 | There are Karen-language translations of Burmese textbooks used by Burma’s Ministry of Education in government-controlled areas of Karen State, Rangoon, and Irrawaddy that describe what is in effect a Burmese history and literature. The texts are straight translations of approved Burmese government texts. Mention of the Karen rebellion is absent. |
22 | We are using the terms Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft as used by the sociologist Max Weber. See Waters and Waters (2015, pp. 3–6). |
23 | Salem-Gervais and Metro (2012) wrote about how different curricula in ethnic areas of Burma emerged not only in KNU-operated schools but in other areas controlled by ethnic armed organizations. As they write, curricula often defined the Burmese as the “other” and the “enemy” of the ethnic group. Thawnghmung (2011) wrote an excellent book about the “other Karen” who remain in Yangon and other parts of Burma, integrating into Burmese schooling systems and institutions, albeit often with difficulty. Notably, these people who also self-identify as Karen do not necessarily share political views, or Gemeinschaft, of the KNU affiliated Karen discussed here. For a survey of how this worked not only among the Karen but among each of the ethnic groups operating schools, see Lall (2021, pp. 241–43) section “Education the Litmus Test”, which describes the range of ethic programs. Her point is that education and the use (or lack of use) of the Burmese language in ethnic schools is fundamental for understanding the nature of identification with the central state and the options for peace. |
24 | See also description of the persistent identity in (Kuroiwa and Verkuyten 2008, pp. 393–95). They assert that this identity emerged in the context of alliances created between elite Karen and the British in the mid-nineteenth century. |
25 | In the Thai refugee camps, the Karen flag flies alongside the Thai flag. |
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Type of Education System | No. of Teacher | No. of Students | No. of School | Subjects | Grade/Level | Organization Affiliated |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Karen Education and Culture Department (Burma) | 11,309 | 179,767 | 1589 | Karen, English, Burmese, History, Geography, Math, Science, and Social Studies | Primary to High School and Junior College | Karen National Union |
2. Karen Refugee Committee—Education Entity (Thailand) | 1515 | 26,775 | 160 | Karen, English, Burmese, History, Geography, Social Science, Maths, and Social Studies | Nursery to Grade 12 and Junior College | Karen Refugee Committee |
3. Migrant Learning Centre (Thailand) | 176 | 3682 | 24 | Karen, History, English, Geography, Burmese, Maths, Science, and Computer. | Primary to Grade 12 and Tertiary education | Burmese Migrant Workers’ Education Committee |
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Gyi, S.S.; Waters, T. Schooling, Identity, and Nationhood: Karen Mother-Tongue-Based Education in the Thai–Burmese Border Region. Soc. Sci. 2023, 12, 163. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12030163
Gyi SS, Waters T. Schooling, Identity, and Nationhood: Karen Mother-Tongue-Based Education in the Thai–Burmese Border Region. Social Sciences. 2023; 12(3):163. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12030163
Chicago/Turabian StyleGyi, Saw Soe, and Tony Waters. 2023. "Schooling, Identity, and Nationhood: Karen Mother-Tongue-Based Education in the Thai–Burmese Border Region" Social Sciences 12, no. 3: 163. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12030163
APA StyleGyi, S. S., & Waters, T. (2023). Schooling, Identity, and Nationhood: Karen Mother-Tongue-Based Education in the Thai–Burmese Border Region. Social Sciences, 12(3), 163. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12030163