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Brief Report

Comparison of Interdependent and Subjective Happiness between Japanese and Thai College Students: A Research Note

by
Hitomi Aoyama
1,* and
Satoshi Horiuchi
2
1
Graduate School of Contemporary Culture, Hijiyama University, Hiroshima 732-8509, Japan
2
Department of Social and Clinical Psychology, Hijiyama University, Hiroshima 732-8509, Japan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Soc. Sci. 2023, 12(11), 587; https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12110587
Submission received: 26 June 2023 / Revised: 21 October 2023 / Accepted: 21 October 2023 / Published: 25 October 2023
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Cross-cultural studies have suggested that happiness in Eastern countries is characterized by a greater extent of relationships and harmony with others than in Western countries; however, happiness levels may differ across Asian countries. A comparison of happiness levels between Japan and Thailand provides a unique opportunity to identify this difference. Thailand has experienced rapid economic growth, going from a low-income to an upper-middle-income country in the span of a single generation. Japan is a high-income country. This study compared levels of interdependent and subjective happiness between Japanese and Thai college students. Participants were 101 Japanese and 157 Thai college students who completed well-established multiple-item scales for interdependent and subjective happiness. The data were collected through online surveys. The level of subjective happiness was significantly higher among Thai college students than their Japanese counterparts, while that of interdependent happiness did not differ. The differences were small based on the effect sizes. These results extend previous findings by using established, multiple-item scales of interdependent and subjective happiness to demonstrate that Thai individuals show higher levels of happiness compared with their Japanese counterparts.

1. Introduction

Happiness is a construct that has been studied extensively across disciplines; accordingly, it has many definitions (Schiffrin and Nelson 2010). In psychology, subjective well-being has often been used interchangeably with happiness. One of the most frequently cited definitions of subjective well-being comes from Diener (1984), who defined it as the presence of positive affect, the absence of negative affect, and life satisfaction. Cross-cultural studies have indicated that the meaning of happiness may vary across cultures (e.g., Gardiner et al. 2020; Lu and Gilmour 2004). In Western cultures, happiness is seen as a personal achievement to a greater extent than in their Eastern counterparts (Uchida and Kitayama 2009; Uchida et al. 2004). In contrast, in Eastern cultures, happiness is more likely to be determined by positive connections in social relationships (Gardiner et al. 2020). Independent and interdependent views of the self (Markus and Kitayama 1991) are reflected in happiness in Western and Eastern cultures, respectively.
Various self-reporting scales have been developed to measure happiness. The Interdependent Happiness Scale (IHS; Hitokoto and Uchida 2015) was developed in Japan, an Eastern country, and has been used in the cross-cultural study by Gardiner et al. (2020) and in Asian countries, such as Japan (Hitokoto and Uchida 2015), Thailand (Hitokoto et al. 2014), and Malaysia, Philippines, and India (Tan et al. 2021). Hitokoto and Uchida (2015) described interdependent happiness as “basically relationship oriented, and a state of harmony with a certain balance being achieved between the self and significant others”. The IHS asks respondents to evaluate whether they are as happy as others around them. It includes questions such as, “I believe that I and those around me are happy” and “I feel that I am being positively evaluated by others around me”. The Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS; Lyubomirsky and Lepper 1999) was developed in the United States, a Western country, and is frequently used as an indicator of independent happiness (Gardiner et al. 2020). Subjective happiness was defined by Lyubomirsky and Lepper (1999) as “a global, subjective assessment of whether one is a happy or an unhappy person”. The SHS asks respondents about their level of happiness in comparison with others around them.
To increase the understanding of happiness within Eastern cultures, it is important to compare happiness levels among Asian countries (Kobayashi and Aldar 2018). Comparisons of happiness levels between Japan and Thailand may provide a unique opportunity to examine related differences between these countries. Japan is in East Asia and is a high-income country (The World Bank 2020). Thailand is in Southeast Asia and has shown rapid economic development, shifting from a low-income to an upper-middle-income country in one generation (The World Bank 2020). Previous studies (Diener et al. 2000; Kanai 2018) have indicated that Thai people have higher levels of happiness than their Japanese counterparts. Specifically, Diener et al. (2000) used the Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener et al. 1985) to measure happiness. However, the Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener et al. 1985) does not directly assess whether one is happy or not. Kanai (2018) measured happiness using the life-ladder scale (Cantril 1965), a single-item scale with an 11-point response scale (range 0–10) that asks respondents to imagine a 0–10 ladder and judge which rung of the ladder they think they are standing on.
However, these studies did not use standardized scales to measure subjective and interdependent happiness directly. Moreover, Kanai (2018) used a happiness scale with only one item. Consequently, differences in interdependent happiness between Japanese and Thai populations remain unclear. Thus, comparisons of both types of happiness using the SHS and the IHS, which are well-established multi-item scales, can further enhance our understanding of the differences in happiness between these two countries. This study compared levels of interdependent and subjective happiness between Japanese and Thai college students. Based on the results of previous studies (Diener et al. 2000; Kanai 2018), the following hypothesis was established: Thai college students will have higher levels of interdependent and subjective happiness than Japanese college students.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Participants

Japanese college students aged 18–23 years who partook in two psychology classes at a private college in the Chugoku region, Japan, were invited to participate in this study. After the class ended, the researchers invited the participants to participate in this study, and 102 (out of 150) agreed to participate in the study and completed the questionnaires through an online survey conducted using Google Forms®. Thai college students aged 18–26 years were invited to partake in this study, and the invitations were distributed to college students known by 25 staff members at an employment agency in Bangkok, Thailand. In total, 160 Thai college students agreed to participate and completed the questionnaires through an online survey conducted using Google Forms®. Data from one Japanese and three Thai students were excluded owing to missing values. Data from 101 Japanese and 157 Thai college students were analyzed. The sample sizes for both countries were determined based on the research budget and not on power analyses.

2.2. Measures

2.2.1. Interdependent Happiness

Interdependent happiness was assessed using the IHS (Hitokoto and Uchida 2015). The scale consists of nine items. A sample item is “I believe that I and those around me are happy”. Participants rated this item on a 5-point scale, ranging from “1: Strongly disagree” to “5: Strongly agree”, to best represent their level of interdependent happiness. The item scores were summed. Higher scores reflected higher levels of interdependent happiness. The reliability and validity of the scale were found to be sufficient (Hitokoto and Uchida 2015).

2.2.2. Subjective Happiness

Subjective happiness was assessed using the Japanese version of the SHS (Shimai et al. 2004), which consists of four items. A sample item is: “In general, I consider myself…” Participants rated the items on a 7-point scale, ranging from “1: not a very happy person” to “7: a very happy person”, to represent their level of dependent happiness. The scores for the four items were summed. Higher scores reflected higher levels of subjective happiness. The reliability and validity of the scale were found to be sufficient (Shimai et al. 2004).

2.2.3. Independent and Interdependent Construal of the Self

The scale for independent and interdependent construal of the self, developed by Kiuchi (1995), was used. The scale has 16 items. Each item includes two response options, A and B. Option A includes a behavioral pattern consistent with the interdependent construal of the self, while option B is consistent with the independent construal of the self. Examples for options A and B are “I adopt to opinions of others around me” and “I insist on my own opinions”, respectively. Participants were asked to rate their responses on a 4-point scale, with options “1: fits exactly to B”, “2: more or less to B”, “3: more or less to A”, to “4: fits exactly to A”. Higher scores reflect a stronger tendency toward an interdependent construal of the self. The reliability and validity of this scale were demonstrated to be sufficient (Kiuchi 1995).

2.2.4. Demographics

Age (years), sex (male or female), grade (first-year students, sophomores, juniors, seniors, and higher), working status (working or not), and religion (Buddhism, other religions, and not having a particular religion) were assessed for all participants. Thai college students responded to additional items about residential location and study majors.

2.3. Procedures

Before answering the questionnaires and demographics, the purpose and content of the survey and ethical considerations were explained to each participant. The students were informed that participation was voluntary and could be withdrawn at any time. Participants were informed that the results of the survey would be published. They were asked whether they understood these points and agreed to participate in the survey, and to choose one of the following two options: “I agree and will complete the survey” or “I do not agree (I will finish the questionnaire with this question)”. Those who selected “I agree and will answer the questionnaire” were asked to complete the questionnaires. This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Hijiyama University (approval number: 2210; approval date: 9 November 2022).

2.4. Analytic Plan

T and χ2 tests were conducted to compare the demographics, independent–interdependent self-construal tendencies, and interdependent and subjective happiness. For demographic variables, except working status and religion, analyses of covariance were conducted. Significant between-group differences were not expected for the other variables. Most Japanese students worked part-time (Japan Student Services Organization 2022), while their Thai counterparts did not (Suzuki 2022). Most Thai students (Central Intelligence Agency 2023) and a smaller portion of Japanese students (Agency for Cultural Affairs 2022) believed in Buddhism. IBM SPSS (version 28) was used for all analyses. Statistical significance was set at a p < 0.05. The effect size estimates were interpreted based on Cohen’s guidelines (Cohen 1988). Values of φ2 and η2 of 0.01, 0.06, and 0.14 were interpreted as small, medium, and large, respectively. Values of d of 0.20, 0.50, and 0.80 were interpreted as small, medium, and large, respectively.

3. Results

Table 1 shows the demographics and the studied variables of Japanese and Thai college students. Residential location of Thai participants is summarized in Table S1 in Supplementary Materials.

3.1. Demographics

The mean age of the 101 Japanese college students was 19.4 years (standard deviation, [SD] = 0.99), and that of the 157 Thai students was 21.2 years (SD = 1.52). Thai college students were significantly older than Japanese students (t(255.94) = 11.39, p = 0.00, d = 1.33). Regarding the sex ratio, 44.6% of Japanese college students were men and 55.44% were women. Among Thai college students, 43.3% were men and 56.7% were women. No significant difference was found in the sex ratio between the two groups (χ2 (1) = 0.04, p = 0.84, φ2 = 0.00). Regarding grades, 54.5% of Japanese college students were first-year students, 36.6% were sophomores, 5.9% were juniors, and 3.0% were seniors or higher. Among Thai college students, 15.3% were first-year students, 15.9% were sophomores, 21.0% were juniors, and 47.8% were seniors or higher. A significant difference in grade composition was found between the two groups (χ2 (3) = 91.81, p = 0.00, φ2 = 0.36). Residual analyses indicated that Japanese college students were more likely to be freshmen and sophomores and less likely to be juniors, seniors, or higher compared with their Thai counterparts. Regarding religion, 30.7% of Japanese college students believed in Buddhism, 3.0% in other religions, and 66.3% did not believe in any particular religion. A significant difference was found in religious beliefs between the Japanese and Thai college students (χ2 (2) = 100.00, p = 0.00, φ2 = 0.39). Residual analyses indicated that, compared with Thai college students, Japanese students were less likely to believe in Buddhism or a particular religion. Regarding working status, 71.3% and 32.5% of Japanese and Thai college students were working, respectively. A significant difference in the proportion of students who were working was found between Japanese and Thai college students (χ2 (1) = 37.10, p = 0.00, φ2 = 0.14). Residual analyses revealed that, compared with Thai college students, Japanese college students were more likely to work and less likely to not work. Regarding independent and interdependent construal of the self, Japanese college students scored significantly higher on the scale, suggesting that they had a stronger tendency toward an interdependent construal of the self compared with their Thai counterparts (t(256) = 5.53, p = 0.00, d = 0.71).

3.2. Interdependent and Subjective Happiness

The mean IHS scores were 30.4 (SD = 6.29) and 31.9 (SD = 5.54) for Japanese and Thai college students, respectively. The score was significantly higher for Thai college students than for their Japanese counterparts (t(256) = 2.06, p = 0.04, d = 0.26). The mean SHS scores were 4.30 (SD = 1.08) and 4.74 (SD = 1.00) for Japanese and Thai college students, respectively. The score was significantly higher for Thai college students than for their Japanese counterparts (t(256) = 3.36, p = 0.00, d = 0.43). The effect sizes for the IHS and SHS scores were small and small-to-medium, respectively.
Two analyses of covariance, with country (Japan vs. Thailand) as the independent variable, age and grade (freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors or higher) as the covariates, and either the IHS or SHS scores as the dependent variable, were conducted to determine the effects of age and grade composition on happiness. The observed differences in age and grade composition were not expected. The main effect of country on IHS score was not significant (F (1, 254) = 2.10, p = 0.15, ηp2 = 0.008). Those of age (F (1, 254) = 0.22, p = 0.64, ηp2 = 0.001) and grade (F (1, 254) = 0.07, p = 0.79, ηp2 = 0.000) were not significant. The main effect of country on SHS score was significant (F (1, 254) = 4.20, p = 0.04, ηp2 = 0.016). Those of age (F (1, 254) = 1.45, p = 0.23, ηp2 = 0.006) and grade (F (1, 254) = 0.07, p = 0.79, ηp2 = 0.000) were not significant. The effect sizes for the IHS and SHS were small.

4. Discussion

This study compared interdependent and subjective happiness among 101 Japanese and 157 Thai college students. The hypothesis that Thai college students would show higher levels of interdependent and subjective happiness than Japanese college students was partially supported. After adjusting for age and grade, Thai college students had higher happiness than their Japanese counterparts, but the differences were small for both interdependent happiness and subjective happiness. A statistically significant difference was found only in the subjective happiness scores.
The results of this study extend previous findings that Thai participants show higher levels of happiness than their Japanese counterparts (Diener et al. 2000; Kanai 2018) in the following two points. First, this study applied the SHS (Lyubomirsky and Lepper 1999) and IHS (Hitokoto and Uchida 2015) to directly assess independent and interdependent happiness, respectively, using scales with well-established psychometric properties. Although previous studies have conducted assessments of happiness between Japanese and Thai samples, they applied the Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener et al. 1985) and single-item scales, such as the life-ladder scale (Cantril 1965), which do not directly assess subjective and interdependent happiness. Since interdependent happiness is prominent in Eastern cultures, such as Japan and Thailand (Gardiner et al. 2020; Hitokoto et al. 2014; Hitokoto and Uchida 2015), a direct measure of this construct may allow for a more accurate assessment of happiness in both countries. Second, the magnitudes of the differences in happiness levels were evaluated in this study using effect sizes. The previous studies that conducted similar assessments did not report on effect sizes, thus not providing much information on the extent of the differences in happiness levels between the two countries. Following Cohen’s (1988) methodology, we found that the differences in interdependent and subjective happiness between the two countries were small.
This study has two limitations. First, the two separate samples for each country may be heterogeneous. Specifically, while Japanese college students were recruited from a private college in Japan, the Thai students were recruited by 25 staff members at an employment agency. Moreover, our Thai participants described having various religions (see Table S1). It is necessary to apply compatible comparable procedures to recruit participants in Japan and Thailand. Second, although we focused on college students, our sample is not representative of this whole population. Generalization to other populations should be made with caution. It is necessary to recruit a larger sample with a diverse demographic background. Despite these limitations, this study provides one of the first pieces of evidence of the existence of large differences in subjective and interdependent happiness levels between Japan and Thailand. Our findings may enable future researchers to determine the sample sizes needed for assessing and ensuring the detection of small differences in happiness between two countries. Thus, this study provides the rationale for future, more robust studies encompassing more representative and diverse samples.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/socsci12110587/s1, Table S1: Residential location of Thai participants.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, H.A.; formal analysis, S.H.; investigation, H.A.; writing—original draft preparation, H.A.; writing—review and editing, S.H.; supervision, S.H.; project administration, H.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Review Board of Hijiyama University (2210 and 9 November 2023).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The dataset of this study is available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Table 1. Demographics and other details by country.
Table 1. Demographics and other details by country.
VariablesJapanThailandt or χ2 (p)Effect Sizes
Age in years, M (SD)19.4 (0.99)21.2 (1.52)t(255.9) = 11.39 (0.00)d = 1.33
Sex, n (%) χ2 (1) = 0.04 (0.84)φ2 = 0.00
Male45 (44.6)68 (43.3)
Female56 (55.4)89 (56.7)
Grade, n (%) χ2 (3) = 91.81 (0.00)φ2 = 0.36
first-year students 55 (54.5)24 (15.3)
Junior37 (36.6)25 (15.9)
Sophomore6 (5.9)33 (21.0)
Senior or higher3 (3.0)75 (47.8)
Religion, n (%) χ2 (2) = 100.00 (0.00)φ2 = 0.39
Buddhism31 (30.7)137 (87.3)
Other religion3 (3.0)8 (5.1)
Not particular67 (66.3)12 (7.6)
Working, n (%) χ2 (1) = 37.10 (0.00)φ2 = 0.14
Yes72 (71.3)51 (32.5)
No29 (28.7)106 (67.5)
Interdependent construal of the self, M (SD)44.7 (6.97)39.9 (6.82)t(256) = 5.53 (0.00)d = 0.71
Interdependent happiness, M (SD)30.4 (6.29)31.9 (5.54)t(256) = 2.06 (0.04)d = 0.26
Subjective happiness, M (SD)4.3 (1.08)4.7 (1.00)t(256) = 3.36 (0.00)d = 0.43
SD, standard deviation; M, mean.
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Aoyama, H.; Horiuchi, S. Comparison of Interdependent and Subjective Happiness between Japanese and Thai College Students: A Research Note. Soc. Sci. 2023, 12, 587. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12110587

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Aoyama H, Horiuchi S. Comparison of Interdependent and Subjective Happiness between Japanese and Thai College Students: A Research Note. Social Sciences. 2023; 12(11):587. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12110587

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Aoyama, Hitomi, and Satoshi Horiuchi. 2023. "Comparison of Interdependent and Subjective Happiness between Japanese and Thai College Students: A Research Note" Social Sciences 12, no. 11: 587. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12110587

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