Promoting Environmental Justice and Sustainability in Social Work Practice in Rural Community: A Systematic Review

Abstract

Social work’s response to global climate change has dramatically increased over the last several years. Similarly, growing attention has been paid to rural social work; less clear, however, is how social work, responsive to global climate change, is developed, deployed, and understood in rural contexts; this systematic review elaborates on current social work contributions (research, practice, and policymaking), promoting environmental justice and sustainability in rural communities. Utilizing the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) approach, this article thematically analyzed and synthesized 174 journal articles on social work-specific interventions and environmental justice. The results illustrate insights into the experiences, practices, or objectives of rural social workers vis-à-vis climate change. Significant themes from the literature demonstrated that gender, age, and race limited access to social work services and climate-related disaster response support in rural settings; this article argues that rural community-driven social work practices focused on environmental justice and sustainability should be encouraged and that policy advocacy attentive to climate change and its impact on vulnerable and marginalized groups should be pursued. Current and prospective social work scholars, practitioners, policymakers, and other stakeholders should collaborate with local rural communities to address their unique needs related to climate change. In turn, grassroots strategies should be co-developed to promote climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction, ultimately achieving the goal of building resilient, healthy, and sustainable rural communities.

1. Introduction

Social work interventions in rural communities feature a spectrum of interventions, from supporting residents’ health and well-being to advancing rural community social development and advocating for policy improvement (Drolet and Sampson 2017; Rambaree et al. 2020). In the current global context of climate change, these efforts have been conducted through three major social work practice fields (practice with clients, research, and policymaking), addressing environmental justice and sustainability in rural community development (Achstatter 2014); however, there is a paucity of nuanced understanding of current rural community-driven social work interventions pertaining to climate change and its social consequences (Kipp et al. 2019). Generally, the foundation of social work interventions associated with climate change, disasters, and other crises is understood as green social work (GSW), namely, social work practitioners are integral to enhancing local adaptation and promoting sustainability practices in the face of increasing climate-related extreme events (Dominelli 2008). GSW, which forms a theoretical framework, supports the understanding of the urgent need for social work interventions to address environmental justice and sustainability in rural communities, contributing to climate adaptation and disaster risk reduction, eventually promoting building resilient and sustainable rural communities.

1.1. Integrating Environmental Justice and Sustainability into Social Work Practice

GSW has been informing environmentally conscious social work endeavours in sustainable development worldwide for over a decade. Focusing on human–environment interactions in the disaster context, the framework posits that human health and well-being are an outcome of those interactions (Dominelli 2008). Accordingly, those within the profession who apply GSW principles acknowledge environmental oppression (Philip and Reisch 2015), advocating for change against systemic and neoliberal policies that prioritize consumerism over environmental justice and integrating environmental justice and sustainability in social work practices (Dominelli 2008; Wu 2021; Drolet et al. 2015a).

In the GSW framework, social work’s core values of equality and social justice are emphasized alongside environmental justice and sustainability (Drolet et al. 2015a). According to Philip and Reisch (2015), environmental justice refers to “the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, colour, national origin, or income concerning the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental law, regulations, and policies.” (p. 474) The concept of environmental justice is central to GSW practice as it focuses on vulnerable populations to encourage local knowledge and advocate for the autonomy of decisions (Philip and Reisch 2015). Although social work educational organizations, such as the U.S. National Association of Social Workers and the Canadian Association of Social Work Education, encourage GSW education (Pfeifer 2016), environmental justice and sustainability have not been fully engaged in social work practice, especially in the rural context (Scherch 2015).

Climate change-induced disasters and other catastrophic events disproportionately affect the agriculture industry worldwide (Walker et al. 2019). For instance, the 2021 Pacific Northwest floods caused the deaths of approximately 600,000 farm animals and displaced approximately 18,000 people in rural communities in Fraser Valley, British Columbia, Canada, resulting in supply disruption of related agriculture products in the Western provinces of Canada and beyond (Gilbert 2021). Since the agriculture industry is integral to society, supplying nourishment for civilians and necessary crops for other goods and services such as clothing manufacturing, social workers have been called upon to respond to these extreme events in the rural communities, addressing their livelihood, health, and other consequences Pfeifer (Ku and Ma 2015). In turn, emergent yet promising social work interventions responsive to climate change and its impact on rural communities have been identified. Specifically, Pfeifer identifies the role of social workers in assisting migrant workers in America with their exposure to disproportionate amounts of pesticides and other toxins (Pfeifer 2016); however, a comprehensively understanding of these promising practices in rural communities remains sparse.

1.2. An Integrated Research-Practice-Policymaking Approach

The United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development prioritizes people, partnership, prosperity (including economic and technological progress), peace, and the planet in the face of climate change (UN n.d.). Social work advocates for human rights, which is the foundation for sustainability (Drolet and Sampson 2017). The impact of the social work profession is far-reaching as social work practitioners are embedded multi-systemically in society encouraging resilience on micro, mezzo, and macro levels and integrated with the economy, ecology, and the social environment, especially in the rural areas (Boetto and McKinnon 2013). Integrating environmental justice and sustainability into social work practice in rural communities needs a holistic approach to integrate research, practice, and policymaking dimensions. There is a scarcity of comprehensive knowledge and policy regarding how social work practitioners have responded to climate change and environmental crises (Drolet et al. 2015a). Further knowledge synthesis must be done, addressing the unique characteristics of rural life and liaising with policymaking strategies. “[I]f social workers can stay rooted in the community and walk together with the local people and government representatives, there is a strong probability that sustainable community development will be achieved.” (Pfeifer 2016, p. 756).

In response to the knowledge deficits identified above, this systematic literature review aims to portray a nuanced understanding of current social work interventions regarding the triangulation of climate change, livelihood, and sustainable rural community development, informing the three social work practice fields of engaging with clients, conducting research, and policymaking. Utilizing the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) approach, this article identifies the current social work knowledge, skills, and interventions and informs related social work practice in agricultural communities. The following research questions (R.Q.s) will drive the direction of this literature review:

R.Q.1: What are the current social work knowledge, skills, and interventions associated with rural community-driven climate change adaptation and sustainable development?

R.Q.2: How could synthesizing the current knowledge, skills, and interventions further advance social worker research-practice-policymaking engagement in rural communities, promoting environmental justice and sustainability?

In response to these two research questions, the PRISMA approach identifies the current literature associated with GSW interventions in the context of the rural community. Through thematical analyses, in the finding section, different themes are presented to answer R.Q.1, by focusing on the three social work fields, namely, research, practice with clients, and policy making. The knowledge deficits were deciphered under each theme. The discussion section synthesizes the current knowledge, skills, and interventions from the finding section, answering R.Q.2 and pointing out future research orientations in the three social work fields.

2. Materials and Methods

PRISMA is the most commonly used literature review protocol to advance technological innovations, synthesize findings, and develop new methods to assess bias (Page et al. 2021). The literature review process includes the following components.

2.1. Keywords and Database

Three groups of keywords were developed to reflect diverse characteristics to identify current literature covering the social work knowledge, interventions, and policies associated with climate change and extreme event-specific rural community development. Namely, Group 1: Rural community (e.g., rural OR farming OR agricultur*), Group 2: Climate change and extreme events (e.g., climat* change OR environment* OR ecolog*), and Group 3: Social Work. “AND” was used among the three keyword groups to search literature covering the three areas. Applying the three groups of keywords into multi-databases, including multidisciplinary databases (Web of Science Core Collection and ProQuest) and social work-specific databases (Social Work Abstract, Social Services Abstracts, and Sociological Abstracts), the first round of searching yields 1125 results from these five databases.

2.2. Literature Curation and Screen

Among these 11,125 results, duplicate records (n = 165) were removed. Since the GSW concept was initiated around 2011–2012, the results published from 2011 through 2021 were extracted. In order to completely understand social work interventions before 2011, the literature review articles (n = 8) issued before 2011 were added to the final review. Generally, journal research articles report cutting-edge research outcomes; hence, this review focuses on peer-reviewed journal articles. Since English is the most widely used academic language, non-English publications were excluded. After applying these criteria, the initial screen identified 344 publications. The first two authors collaboratively developed the following criteria by reviewing all these publications’ titles and abstracts: Criterion 1—Direct impact: if the publication directly examines social work research, practice, policymaking, and education. Criterion 2—Indirect impact: if the publication examines related fields such as nursing and environmentalism, in which social workers can glean information and knowledge from other approaches.

The texts were determined eligible for inclusion related to social work practice, research, policy, and education directly or indirectly, such as community development, mental health, and child protection. It was discovered that there is a paucity of the scholarly output of studies directly impacting social work; hence, most studies indirectly inform the social work profession. Within indirect impact, the research team decided that the text related to social work practice would bolster existing social work strategies and challenge practitioners to embrace a wide lens to examine other social work-related issues to develop new social work interventions. The focused population was rural groups, and outcomes included promoting rural community development and improving agricultural livelihood. The abstract and title screening phase excluded 128 articles. Reasons for excluding these included a hyper-focus on urban literature (n = 3) and no connection to social work (n = 125). As shown in Figure 1, 174 publications were included in the final review list, and 70 journal articles were reported in this study; this list is available on an online data repository of the Open Science Framework (Greig and Wu 2022).

2.3. Data Analysis and Synthesis

Both authors have received graduate-level social work education and professional training; their professional background enables them to apply a critical social work lens to examine the knowledge, skills, and promising practice, which have been used by social workers and inform future social work interventions. As mentioned above, research, working with clients (practice), and supporting social policy (policymaking) are the three major social work practice fields; these core social work components create the framework for interpreting the final findings. A thematical analysis approach was used to review the 174 publications. Coding and theming strategies were applied to assist in the develop the related tri-level sub-categories aligned with the three core components. The authors independently reviewed the publications and collaboratively developed themes and sub-themes presented in the Findings section in response to R.Q.1. Furthermore, based on the thematical analysis outcomes, the authors synthesized these outcomes into the three components of social work practice. The Discussion section presents the knowledge synthesis results and identifies the future research orientations for better integrating environmental justice and sustainability in rural community social work interventions, answering R.Q.2.

2.4. Limitations

The data curation and data analysis indicate the following four aspects of limitation. First, this literature review focused on academic journal articles, while grey literature was excluded. Grey literature, such as community-based service organizations’ reports and policies, provides practice-focused evidence and recommendations, further informing social work research, practice, and policy. The searching period mainly covers the scholarly output during the past ten years. Although literature review articles published before 2011 were included, these articles might not fully address all the related publications associated with environmental justice and sustainability in rural settings.

Although English is the most widely used academic language worldwide, non-English publications also provide valuable references, potentially excluded. The first two authors worked independently and collaboratively to determine the final reviewed journal articles (n = 174). The authors’ professional and personal social work backgrounds limit their screening and analysis. Notably, the Canadian social work education and practice, which the authors have received, feature similarities but tremendous differences with other countries’ training and practice. These similarities and differences enable the authors to examine the same issues from various perspectives, promoting an understanding of environmental justice and sustainability in international social work practice in rural settings.

3. Findings

The studies included in this review span from 2011 to 2021. Much of the literature expanded in this timeframe due to the increasing nature of climate change and associated crises. The research was predominantly reported from the global North, where most scholars reside in Canada, the United States, and Australia; this country-based distribution is aligned with the fact that the global North is the frontline of social work research and practice (Bright 2021). It is worth mentioning that studies reported in this article also cover international communities, such as China, Mexico, Brazil, Iran, India, and West Africa. These scholarly outcomes enrich the global context to address GSW practice in rural communities worldwide.

The literature highlighted the increasing impacts of global warming on farmland, rural livelihood (Tinning 2011), and rural community development (Ku 2015), addressing societal dimensions such as agriculture (Singh and Rastogi 2021), economics (Tudor 2016), medicine (Liu 2019), and ecology (Crawford et al. 2015). Some reported research outcomes directly contribute to social work practice, while almost all indirectly inform multi-systemic social work. Focusing on R.Q.1, this section presents the findings associated with social work research, supporting rural clients, and the related policies that impact rural communities.

As shown in Figure 2, the general themes are presented in the three core social work components (research, practice, and policymaking, the three circles in Figure 2). Under each theme, sub-themes are identified to promote each general theme. Further elaborations for sub-themes are illustrated and supported by related literature. Based on this structure, the following section details the related evidence by: (1) explaining the general themes, (2) elaborating on the sub-themes, and (3) identifying related gaps under each theme associated with current social work research, practice, and policymaking.

3.1. Social Work Research: Disparity of Impacts on Rural and Farming Communities

Generally, climate change and sustainability-informed social work are pertinent foci for the social work profession to embrace in rural communities as this population has distinctive vulnerabilities (Cobbinah and Anane 2016; Horton et al. 2010). Despite the variability of conditions in rural communities worldwide, there is distinct evidence that environmental injustice is rampant in the agriculture sector. The following statement provides a context for the rural sector of America. Although these conditions are unique to American agricultural communities, there are similarities to other rural communities globally.

“The proximity of residential to agricultural property, coupled with lax zoning, lower property values, and less sophisticated local resistance has meant that poorer residents often live adjacent to a variety of point source polluters, ranging from confined animal feeding operations to underregulated small businesses… illicit methamphetamine laboratories, or both.”

(Butterfield et al. 2009, p. 108)

This statement demonstrates that many rural communities are already under duress prior to climate change-induced disasters; this is not just the case in rural America (Cobbinah and Anane 2016), and these catastrophes only deepen economic and social depravity. Environmental oppression is evident in the unique vulnerabilities of the agricultural sector as individuals in rural settings are disproportionately exposed to hazardous waste and natural resource exploitation (Pfeifer 2016) and are impacted by hazards and disasters in a uniquely devastating way (Komi et al. 2016). As shown in

Table 1. General Theme and Description.

Theme	Sub-Theme	Description	Example of Evidence in Literature
Research: The disparity of Impacts on Rural and Farming Communities	Disproportionate Toxin Exposure	Individuals living in rural or agricultural settings are at risk of more exposure to toxins related to farming practices, leading to adverse health effects.	Male workers in rural regions in China involved in a national survey experienced twice the infection rates with dusty lung diagnoses compared to urban settings (Liu 2019); Rural children in Agudoa, a rural region in Southern Brazil, were disproportionately exposed to toxins causing long-term health issues (Nascimento et al. 2018); Farmworkers in North Carolina, U.S.A., experienced excessive pesticide exposure and safety violations (Robinson et al. 2011).
	Disproportionate Impacts of Disaster	Rural residents are disproportionately devastated by environmental disasters due to isolation from urban centers and their crop being affected by extreme weather events.	Rural communities in Oti Basin, West Africa, are more vulnerable to disasters such as floods due to barriers to services and infrastructure (Komi et al. 2016); Disadvantaged communities and vulnerable groups are least prepared for disasters and are often impacted the hardest (Lindberg et al. 2017); Disaster mitigation and preparedness prove a more responsible economic choice; unfortunately, international governments continue to underinvest in rural communities (Council of Canadian Academies 2022).

, two sub-themes were developed (1) agricultural regions have high levels of toxins from pesticides used on farms, and (2) rural areas are devastated by disasters due to isolation and reliance on the physical environment for well-being and livelihood.

3.1.1. Disproportionate Toxin Exposure

The literature demonstrated in rural communities, individuals are unequally affected by toxin exposure (Cole et al. 2011; Yu et al. 2018), and the use of pesticides is on the rise worldwide (Pfeifer 2016). Examples of toxin exposure in the literature came from rural American communities and rural regions in the Andes; this exposure to toxins can cause adverse health effects in individuals; the toxins can be carcinogenic, neurologically damaging, and cause miscarriages and other neonatal diagnoses (Pfeifer 2016). Unfortunately, examples of rural individuals facing health adversities from agriculture-related toxin exposure are documented worldwide. A study in Southern Brazil found that the prevalence of pesticides caused adverse health effects on rural residents disrupting endocrine and thyroid functioning amongst young people in rural communities (Nascimento et al. 2018). In China, a health crisis occurs as men working in rural settings experience twice as many infection rates with dusty lung diagnoses as men in urban settings, causing shortened life spans and health complications (Liu 2019). Other countries that have been affected by this disease, such as the U.S.A., have embraced measures to mitigate the extent of the illness and pay retribution to the families who have family members affected by this illness (Liu 2019).

3.1.2. Disproportionate Impacts of Disaster on Rural Areas

Agricultural toxin exposure is one instance of environmental injustice rural individuals experience; however, some rural communities in northeast Oregon, U.S.A., also face catastrophic climate-induced extreme weather events (Hamilton et al. 2014). Preparedness for disasters is another realm where rural areas are not as advanced as urban communities, in part, due to inadequate access to resources (Betka et al. 2021). For example, rural communities in Oti Basin, West Africa, are more vulnerable to disasters such as floods due to barriers to services and infrastructure (Komi et al. 2016).

Climate change-induced disasters disproportionately impact rural and farming communities as these extreme weather events can destroy crops, livestock, and subsequent livelihoods, food security, and household incomes in their wake (FAO 2015; Peng et al. 2019). Disaster response is a complex effort associated with almost all the societal dimensions, including ecological, social, economic, and health (King et al. 2013; Wu and Bryan 2021). Disadvantaged communities and vulnerable groups are least prepared for disasters and are often impacted the hardest (Lindberg et al. 2017). Social work practitioners are well equipped to act as disaster responders and are often called in the aftermath to provide “emergency mental health support, post-disaster community redevelopment, and mitigation” (Wu 2021, p. 1801). Social work is an opportunity to engage in culturally specific and community-based mitigation and preparedness disaster response to bolster community resilience (Wu 2021). Preparing for climate-related disasters rather than focusing solely on disaster recovery is beneficial at all levels. Disaster mitigation and preparedness prove a more responsible economic choice; unfortunately, international governments continue to underinvest in these aspects in rural communities (Council of Canadian Academies 2022).

3.1.3. Gaps, Disparity, and the Environment

The current literature portrays a bleak landscape of the rural experience concerning the changing climate and environmental concerns and highlights the need for bolstered, calculated, and informed sustainable social work interventions. The need to mobilize research outcomes to inform policy change is urgently needed, particularly regarding individuals, communities, and countries’ holistic disaster resilience strategies (e.g., ecologically, environmentally, and socially).

The literature releases significant gaps regarding supporting migrant workers (Drolet et al. 2018). Given migrant workers’ vulnerability and exposure to pesticides and farm chemicals, there is an increasing need for social work support for these individuals. Furthermore, more studies are needed regarding political and social processes that lead to long-term illness from occupational health perspectives for those in rural settings and how public policy can protect marginalized groups and individuals from environmental injustice.

3.2. Practice with Clients: Supporting Rural Residents’ Mental Well-Being

Catastrophic events triggered by climate change also inhibit mental health services in rural settings, causing them to be inadequate after a disaster (Carnie et al. 2011). The literature described the landscape of mental health supports in agricultural communities. Rural residents experience barriers to accessing services, assisting in reducing economic stress (Carnie et al. 2011) and addressing high levels of mental health issues and addiction (Miller et al. 2021). The potential reason is that most mental health and addiction resource development has focused on treating individuals in urban settings (Heflinger and Christens 2006); this under-prioritization of mental health services in rural communities contributes to understaffed, inadequately funded, or non-existent mental health care in rural settings (Butterfield et al. 2009). Significant themes that arose from the literature demonstrated that demographic factors, such as gender (many communities post-disaster see more severe gender inequality) (Ku and Ma 2015), age (more barriers to mental health supports than urban counterparts) (Heflinger and Christens 2006), and race (racial oppression linked to migrant workers) (Pfeifer 2016), impacted access to services.

Table 2. General Theme and Description.

Theme	Sub-Theme	Description	Example of Evidence in Literature
Practice with clients: Supporting clients’ needs and mental health	Gender	The unique role of women in certain cultures and the gender-related impacts associated with climate change and environmental crises.	A literature review illustrates how intersectionality is a valuable approach to understanding climate disasters and gender impacts in the “global North” (Walker et al. 2019); The experiences of women in Sarpol-e Zahab and Salas-e Babajani counties in Kermanshah Province, Iran, after an earthquake are expounded (Lebni et al. 2020); Gender-influenced rural experiences of climate change in the Interior and Northern regions of British Columbia, Canada (Drolet and Sampson 2017).
	Children and Youth	Children and youth have distinctive experiences growing up in rural communities and face barriers to mental health support, experiencing eco-anxiety, financial stress, and PTSD from disaster experiences.	A study conducted in rural Australia (New South Wales) of the experiences of youth finds more mental health struggles (Carnie et al. 2011); Children and youth in rural America experience more barriers to mental health support than their rural counterparts (Heflinger and Christens 2006).
	Black, Indigenous, and People of Color Individuals (BIPOC)	Racialized individuals have disparate experiences in rural and agricultural communities, especially in North America	Latino migrant workers in Southern California, the U.S. experience the negative effects of a warming climate as they work in agricultural settings amidst heatwaves and battle heat-related illnesses (Stoecklin-Marois et al. 2013); BIPOC individuals in rural settings endure more psychological distress and abuse (sexual and emotional) than their counterparts (Heflinger and Christens 2006); The Government of Canada released information about the social element of the aftermath of wildfire disasters, specifically for Indigenous peoples (Government of Canada 2020).

details the themes supporting rural clients’ needs and mental health concerning environmental and climate change-related disasters. Research and practice largely ignore rural residents’ struggles, contributing to the inaccessibility of social services, including social work support. Understanding the challenges experienced by individuals in rural settings provides social work practitioners with knowledge of improving service delivery, and room for the social work profession to mobilize and buffer against the negative impacts of climate change and eco-anxiety. The following demographic factors were highlighted in the literature.

3.2.1. Gender

Cultural affiliation affects gender experience in environmental concerns, climate change, and post-catastrophes (Walker et al. 2019; Ku and Ma 2015; Hou and Wu 2020; Lebni et al. 2020); this is evident in cultural roles and norms; for instance, traditional caregiving roles fall on women making their post-disaster experience more complicated (Nyahunda et al. 2021). Female survivors are considered the most vulnerable during and after disasters because of their physical and structural vulnerability and economically disadvantaged position (Sim et al. 2019; Muchacha and Mushunje 2019; Meyiwa et al. 2014). Disasters can increase psychosocial distress, which social workers can address (Nyahunda et al. 2021). An example of a gendered experience is in Anishinaabe, Indigenous women in rural Ontario, Canada, who are responsible for ‘speaking for the water’; Anishinaabe women have a sacred connection with water, representing creating life (Walker et al. 2019); thus, as climate change causes water degradation, this role becomes even more sacred and pronounced, affecting their mental wellness.

Amidst the aftermath of climate-related disasters, the literature highlights that “gender inequality is heightened during and after a disaster” (Ku and Ma 2015, p. 745). Women in rural settings were found to have their health needs to be neglected, have less access to assistance, have experienced more stigmatization than their male counterparts (Lebni et al. 2020), and are excluded from decision-making (Pham et al. 2016). An example in rural British Columbia, Canada, is the increased housework on women when male partners had to find work in neighbouring communities after the temperature warmed enough for a bug infestation to destroy almost 20 million acres of forest and farmland (Drolet and Sampson 2017). In some regions worldwide, it is culturally normative to be illiterate or to need a male present to leave their home; these unique vulnerabilities will make them more susceptible and emotionally sensitive to challenges associated with catastrophes (Achstatter 2014). An example comes from the rural Australian communities where barriers to health services increased as the drought persisted, leaving women worrying if their health needs were a priority for the government (Rich et al. 2018). Despite gender-based oppression post-disaster, a study from Sichuan province in China demonstrated that women are instrumental in mitigating risk and contributing to their and their rural community members’ emotional well-being (Ku and Ma 2015). Throughout the systematic literature review, it became evident that women’s experience in rural or farming communities in the face of climate change is unique; social work practitioners must have this knowledge to respond effectively (Drolet et al. 2015b).

3.2.2. Children and Youth

The data highlight the mental health struggles and services available to rural children and youth. Many of the studies are small and qualitative in nature, but the findings are consistent. Namely, children and youth in rural areas have a unique experience compared to urban counterparts, where there is arguably more stigma and barriers to accessing mental health services and addictions (Heflinger and Christens 2006) and barriers to receiving support post-disaster (Carnie et al. 2011). Additionally, the unique stressors of financial instability, time restraints, and the physical safety risks of farm life can affect adolescent mental health (Pickett et al. 2017, 2020). As social workers are responsible for providing mental health to rural community members, these results are relevant to the profession.

Both adults and young people experience mental health struggles in agricultural communities; however, youth have distinctive perspectives (Carnie et al. 2011). Addiction and mental health are possibly more prevalent in young people in rural settings. Still, these issues are more concealed due to the isolation, scarcity of population, and barriers to professional support (Heflinger and Christens 2006). Additionally, eco-anxiety, the emotional reaction to the changing climate, and the knowledge of the changing climate are rising, particularly for children and youth (Usher et al. 2019). Children and youth in rural settings affected by climate change experience eco-anxiety with an added layer of economic concern, as their families’ livelihood relies on the land (Carnie et al. 2011). The stress of knowing about the changing climate impacts how individuals feel about the future (Mason 2011).

Climate change-related disasters cause catastrophic impacts on entire communities, degrading the environment further, and often, the tragedy and the aftermath can cause psychological distress, particularly in young people (Juth et al. 2015). Carnie and her colleagues determined that many young people are distressed and anxious in rural regions impacted by disasters, but resource access added barriers to seeking mental health support after a disaster (Carnie et al. 2011). Furthermore, when mental health services are provided in rural settings, the literature noted that residents typically resist attending formal sessions with psychological support, which trigger more challenges in providing mental health services for children and youth (Heflinger and Christens 2006). Rural residents prefer a more informal or grassroots approach than their urban peers (Heflinger and Christens 2006); this information aligns well with local generalist social workers providing effective services as they may not have the cost or professional barriers as their psychologist counterparts.

3.2.3. Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) Individuals

The disparity between ethnicity is not solely an urban issue. The literature indicates that in North America, specifically, non-white individuals have disparate experiences in rural and agricultural communities. BIPOC individuals report disproportionate oppression compared to white individuals (Heflinger and Christens 2006). In many remote areas, Indigenous communities experience natural hazards (i.e., wildfires, floods, and snowstorms) that ravage sacred land (Government of Canada 2020) and limited access to health and social services (Wu and Stukes 2020). The literature shows that BIPOC individuals in rural settings endure more psychological distress and abuse (sexual and emotional) than their counterparts (Heflinger and Christens 2006). For many BIPOC individuals, farming may resonate with oppressive historical experiences as BIPOC groups previously could not freely choose their occupation and were forced into agricultural labour (Turje 2012). Though this is not merely a distant memory, the same pattern has been recreated with migrant workers working in U.S.A. and Canada in the farm and greenhouse sectors (Pfeifer 2016). A specific example is Latino migrant workers in Southern California who experience the negative effects of a warming climate as they work in agricultural settings amidst heatwaves and battle heat-related illnesses (Stoecklin-Marois et al. 2013).

In Canada, many rural Indigenous communities are located in Northern isolated regions and are disproportionately exposed to wildfires and other disasters (e.g., floods, snowstorms, extremely low temperatures). Many rural Indigenous communities rely on natural resources more than those in urban settings, making them more vulnerable to climate change (Drolet and Sampson 2017); however, rural Indigenous communities have practices consistent with their culture and cultural affiliation about the sacredness of land, making it essential for practitioners to have an Indigenous framework for understanding (Kipp et al. 2019; Government of Canada 2020). Rural Indigenous individuals may experience mental health struggles after disasters due to their worldview and recognition of the interconnectedness to the land (Kipp et al. 2019). For example, in Saskatchewan, Canada, wildfires broke out in rural communities ravaging the Dene band’s physical environment. Emergency responders ignored local and cultural practices in their emergency response and, as a result, separated several families by hundreds of kilometres, negatively impacting the Dene peoples’ emotional health (Walker et al. 2019). “Such assumptions resulted in distinct impacts and implications for Indigenous women, men, youth, and elders of the community, pointing to needed changes for inclusive emergency management practice” (Walker et al. 2019, p. 7). Social workers in similar settings can support by pairing with emergency responders to develop culturally-sensitive disaster-preparedness interventions.

3.2.4. Knowledge Deficits and Future Research Orientations

The literature contains gaps in social work practice, particularly regarding direct practice with rural communities in the face of a changing climate. “[D]espite the clear linkages between social work and environmental challenges such as climate change, the social work profession has been slow to officially recognize the interrelationships between the environment, social and economic aspects of sustainability” (Nyahunda 2021, p. 123). Heflinger and Christens (2006) highlight a significant gap in service delivery as there are simply insufficient service providers in rural areas; this lack is especially problematic when a disaster or catastrophic event occurs. Practitioners living in communities struck by disasters are coping themselves and providing support to an entire community. Social workers and mental health service providers in rural communities need increased awareness about the rural experience, including the gendered experience, the unique barriers children and youth experience, and cultural competency for working with racialized groups (Welch et al. 2013). Intergrading these variables into social work education and professional training will enhance the social workers’ capacity to serve in rural areas.

3.3. Social Policy Related to Rural Livelihood

The social vulnerabilities accompanied by rural livelihood affect policy, advocacy, and governance, respectively. As discussed above, distinctive social vulnerabilities experienced by rural populations, including disparate environmental injustices, barriers to mental health support and unique eco-anxiety experiences, and the impact of age, gender, and race on rural community members’ disaster response. Table 1 lists rural communities’ social vulnerabilities, adaptations, and sustainable strategies. The economic experience of rural communities can be particularly turbulent as environmental disasters impact farmers’ livestock, crop yield, fisheries, and forestry (FAO 2015). Disasters affect farms and create food scarcity (Friel et al. 2014).

It was evident throughout the literature that rural communities recognize the power imbalance between farmers and large bureaucratic and governmental structures (Manos et al. 2014); however, intervention from a bureaucratic level to provide disaster relief and sustainable preventative measures was identified as needed in agricultural communities (Komi et al. 2016). Within the U.S.A., for example, policy-driven discussions did not consider marginalized groups’ voices until Hurricane Katrina in 2005 (Montz et al. 2011). Despite this recent date, policy-level discussions have developed in recent years to respond to the United Nations’ Sustainable Goals for 2030. Influencing climate change and social policy may not be possible for all social work practitioners globally, however, practitioners can advocate for considerations for affected women’s livelihood in the aftermath of a disaster, mobilize mental health support, and the immediate needs (food, shelter) to be met. As shown in

Table 3. General Theme and Description.

Theme	Sub-Theme	Description	Example of Evidence in Literature
Policymaking: Social Vulnerabilities and Adaptation of Rural Communities	Rural Economy	The finances of agricultural sector employees can be ‘feast or famine,’ and disasters can significantly impact crops and livelihood.	Rural Montana and rural Washington areas are studied to understand Americans’ experience of environmental health is impacted by unique economic circumstances (Butterfield et al. 2009); The relationships among social work, farmers, and the alternative food movement are connected in British Columbia, Canada (Turje 2012); The rural and urban differences are analyzed in China to understand the unique vulnerabilities of rural communities (Ge et al. 2021).
	Rural Community-Based Knowledge	Many farming communities are embracing sustainable farming practices to protect the environment.	A study of the Uttarakhand region in Northern India’s distinctive traditional methods of farming that promote agro-diversity and align culturally and religiously (Negi and Maikhuri 2013); Farmer’s perceptions of climate change and strategy are analyzed in rural Grey-Bruce County, Ontario, Canada (Bondy and Cole 2019); An environmental governance process in Campeche, Mexico, emphasizes local decision-making and analyzes relationships between communities and government (Rivera-Arriaga et al. 2021).
	Agroecology	Rural communities’ grassroots strategies and historical knowledge feature possible responses to climate change.	Midwestern farmers in Iowa, the U.S. are interviewed to determine the relationship between the farmers’ trust in environmental groups’ information about climate change and climate risk and subsequent agricultural sustainability practices (Arbuckle et al. 2015); Bioenergy and agricultural sustainability in Tibet of China are expounded (Feng et al. 2009); The resilience of organic farming in rural New Zealand was studied (Cradock-Henry 2021).

, the following three sub-themes were generated to further support this theme: rural economy, rural community-based knowledge, and agroecology.

3.3.1. Rural Economy

It is essential to note the unique economic experience of individuals in the agricultural sector due to the reliance on agriculture and natural resources for household income in the face of extreme weather events (McElwee et al. 2017; Rudiarto et al. 2019). Small farmers globally have experienced life becoming “increasingly difficult” due to the political impact of mandates regarding fair trade, organic, food co-ops, and other elements in the face of climate change and environmental issues (Turje 2012). The rural experience is marked by food insecurity, barriers to services, and precarious financial situations. The Canadian data reflect that food scarcity is exponentially growing comparable to rates during the Great Depression (Turje 2012). “Low-income families are frequently caught up in local economic downturns, resulting in the loss of insurance benefits, extended periods of un- or underemployment, the economic necessity of multiple part-time jobs, or both” (Butterfield et al. 2009, p. 108). This financial insecurity is the underpinning of rural livelihood in many communities worldwide and the gap of economic disparity between wealthy farmers and low-income farmers continues to widen (Turje 2012).

With rapid urbanization, individuals in rural settings often earn less income (Bice-Wigington 2015; Yuan et al. 2018). For example, the overall urban incomes in China are three times higher than those in rural settings (Ge et al. 2021). Consequently, the approach to farming, life and the economy is impacted by the scarcity that can be found just around the corner (Butterfield et al. 2009). Climate change and extreme weather events jeopardize the rural economy even further. For instance, when drought hits a community, it disrupts rural livelihoods, impacts food insecurity, reduces household income, and causes many individuals to seek secondary or alternative employment (Keshavarz et al. 2013; Khayyati and Aazami 2016; Branco and Féres 2021). The “feast or famine” narrative is more famine than a feast to these individuals, given the pressure to deliver food sustainably, crop variability, the impact of weather systems, and the inability to control these elements, especially as they continue to change as the climate is warming (Butterfield et al. 2009; Carnie et al. 2011).

3.3.2. Rural Community-Based Knowledge and Governance

A prevalent finding in many studies highlighted the importance of local knowledge and strategies and rural communities’ preference for self-governance in the face of climate change, climate-related disasters, and sustainability practices (Butterfield et al. 2009; Machado et al. 2021). The literature suggests that some rural communities respond to poor living conditions, inadequate waste disposal, and agricultural runoff by creating grassroots solutions, feeling that governmental interventions may not prioritize their problems (Butterfield et al. 2009). Rural and farming communities have thorough practices and understandings of their local land tested and used for years. Negi and Maikhuri (2013, p. 502) state, “The need for preservation, protection, and promotion of traditional knowledge has become inevitable for self-sustenance, the economic prosperity of knowledge holders, and competitive business advantage.” In this community, crops and plants have particular medicinal or cultural importance and the local farmers have specific methods for maintaining and enhancing soil health using unique crop rotation methods (Negi and Maikhuri 2013). Another instance of local knowledge is the indigenous ceremonial burning in central Brazil that contributes to conservation efforts (Welch et al. 2013). Both examples demonstrate the innate local agricultural practices already enhancing sustainability.

Some communities expressed that governmental intervention is unreliable (Ku and Ma 2015), inefficient (Aftab et al. 2021), or non-existent (Drolet and Sampson 2017). An example of a bottom-up governance model in rural communities in Italy demonstrates the value of shared decision-making on the social fabric of society as innovative agricultural systems were developed and social services enhanced (García-Llorente et al. 2016). In another example, in Campeche, Mexico, a research team analyzed varying governance strategies in a participatory action research project; it was discovered that top-down approaches were not as successful as partnering with knowledge holders and prioritizing community members’ strategies and practices (Rivera-Arriaga et al. 2021). Additionally, government support or mandates often neglect to consider farm size, leaving farmers and communities under-supported and inadequately resourced (Bondy and Cole 2019).

Though there are detailed examples in the literature about the vast and valuable local knowledge, there are also examples of the need for rural communities to be educated about climate change and its impact on their land and livelihood (Pfeifer 2016). Rural community-specific knowledge is emphasized in farming and sustainable agriculture practices and mental health services (Heflinger and Christens 2006). Sometimes, the best ideas for solutions to local problems can be found by simply asking residents about their needs (Heflinger and Christens 2006); this is a delicate tightrope for social workers to walk as they seek out local knowledge to understand and integrate while also using their position to inform community members of the imminent risks of climate change and the need for sustainable agricultural practices (Hamilton et al. 2014). There is evidence that there is a need for increased education in local communities and the promotion of grassroots sustainable strategies. Social work practitioners can use their community-based work to disseminate climate-related information while encouraging locally developed strategies.

3.3.3. Agroecology

Agroecology “advocates synergies between three distinct systems: the environment, food production, and the socio-economic context” (Teschner et al. 2017, p. 100). The agriculture community is susceptible to the shifts in the global climate and the climate-related disasters that exacerbate previous environmental, social, and economic vulnerabilities (Walker et al. 2019). Climate change impacts precipitation levels, rising temperatures, and humidity shifts that subsequently increase the number of disasters (Arbuckle et al. 2015); these changes affect the agriculture sector, including water availability, soil erosion, and crop productivity (Arbuckle et al. 2015).

The literature provides international examples of rural communities discovering grassroots sustainable farming and agricultural practices and partnering with scientists (Castillo et al. 2018). Examples include using bioenergy for rural households in Tibet (Feng et al. 2009), agroecological dairy farming in New Zealand (Cradock-Henry 2021), and slash-and-mulch practices in Belize (Drexler 2020), and vertical farming in urban settings (Besthorn 2013), among many other reputable strategies. Despite these poignant examples, there remain gaps in policy-related literature. The literature highlighted a significant disparity in information relating to social work policy. A considerable gap illustrates a need for a rural voice in community organizing, decision-making, and policy change (Heflinger and Christens 2006). Other notable limitations of the current scope of literature include a need for more fulsome preparedness and emergency management plans to mitigate the impact of climate change-related disasters on the agricultural sector and farming communities (Montz et al. 2011). As a result of the variability of farming economics, more policy is needed to allow for income-generating opportunities outside of rural settings to diversify economies and bolster families against poverty (Komi et al. 2016).

3.3.4. Gaps and Connections to Climate Change

Despite rural areas having well-established environmentally sustainable agricultural approaches, rural community members may not believe the government’s information about climate change to be accurate or may underestimate the risk climate change poses (Arbuckle et al. 2015). An identified gap in synthesizing the community needs and government interactions contributes to mistrust between rural communities and governmental policies (Drolet and Sampson 2017); this disruption between knowledge and understanding of individuals can inhibit action and response to climate change and environmental concerns. The extent of damage and economic loss farmers may experience associated with different disasters is underreported worldwide, causing a more profound chasm between need and support.

Climate change-related social policies should consider how the economy of the agricultural sector is impacted by climate change and climate-included disasters (FAO 2015; Wu and Etienne 2021); these extreme events affecting food security and nutrition of rural residents subsequently devastate rural livelihood and rural residents’ mental health (Wu 2020) and are projected to increase (Alam 2017). Arbuckle and colleagues (Arbuckle et al. 2015) argue that social work inventions could fulfill the educational responsibilities to help farmers utilize climate change-related data in order to integrate climate change adaption and mitigation policies and adopt sustainable practices; this educational instrument needs further exploration and evaluation.

4. Discussion: Social Work Client-Research-Policymaking Triangulation

The findings listed above provide evidence-based strategies for social work professionals to improve their approaches in rural communities to promote the understanding of environmental concerns and integrate environmental justice and sustainability in rural community development. The gaps identified in each theme hint at prospective social work client-research-policymaking interventions; this section will synthesize these findings to generate recommendations for improving social work research, practice, and policymaking in rural communities, answering R.Q.2.

4.1. Social Work Research

Social work as a profession focuses on equity and inclusion; this naturally extends to GSW interventions through addressing environmental injustice (Drolet et al. 2015b). The disparity of toxin exposure, the increased impact of disasters on marginalized groups, and the need for sustainable practices all call for social work interventions. Social work practitioners are often embedded in vulnerable groups impacted by catastrophes and ecological oppression (Drolet and Sampson 2017). Consequently, social work practitioners are best-suited to respond by providing support for clients’ and communities’ immediate and long-term development needs and advocating against the oppressive structures subjugating these marginalized groups.

Many toxins negatively impact farmworkers’ livelihood and health, influence co-inhabitants (animals), and damage the environment (Pfeifer 2016); this evidence generates new opportunities for social workers to address the interplay among humans, co-inhabitants, and ecological systems, contributing to human-animal-environment sustainability. Furthermore, many individuals in rural settings are aware and alarmed regarding the impact of climate change on their livelihood and disasters resulting from the changing climate (Bondy and Cole 2019). The knowledge of the influences has not effectively translated into actions (Arbuckle et al. 2015); this represents a knowledge–action deficit resulting from inadequate funding or governmental support (Bondy and Cole 2019). Despite the rural knowledge of climate change and its impact on livestock, crop, and the planet, much of the literature speaks to the agriculture sector as reactive responders rather than predictive (Botane Horvath et al. 2015; Heenan 2000).

Social workers’ community-based expertise would promote the knowledge translation and mobilization. With unique community organizing strategies, social workers can be instrumental actors in rural community settings to advocate for local voices to be heard and rally groups together to partner in sustainability practices. Social workers benefit from the shared experience and knowledge of rural individuals concerning disasters, toxin exposure, and occupational health. Future research could strengthen social workers’ capacity to act as more powerful allies to individuals seeking health and social care support and participate in multi-level disaster resilience mitigation and preparedness for communities.

4.2. Social Work Practice with Clients

Farming communities have been underrepresented in social work research and practice, primarily associated with climate change and disaster (Heenan 2000). A lack of literature illustrates rural social workers’ contributions toward environmental justice and social justice, intending to assist the rural farming community in achieving climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction. Social workers in rural communities are well established in the community network (Landsman 2002; Humble et al. 2013). Social work practitioners can leverage their community-based partnership, engagement in community education, and relationship with community members to promote sustainable solutions, including agricultural interventions (Pfeifer 2016), and contribute to disaster mitigation (Scherch 2015). “Becoming an advocate and ally with both farmworker organizing groups and environmental justice groups engaged with farmworkers is consistent with an ecological model of social work, as they promote an ‘indigenous’ helping model” (Pfeifer 2016, p. 185). Given the distinctive economic experience, barriers to health and social services, and disparity of support for women, BIPOC groups, and children and youth, the profession of social work have tremendous opportunities to grow in effectiveness, cultural competence, disaster preparedness, and sustainable practices, which need to be further developed.

Social workers are uniquely positioned to rally people together to combat the impact of climate-related disasters in rural settings via health and social support (Purcell and McGirr 2014). Turje (2012) implores social workers to ensure that their clients in the rural sect have the background knowledge to make their own choices; this is what leads to fighting against the root of neoliberalism. “While social work has its roots in educating classed individuals on ‘moral’ choices, such education is pertinent towards neoliberalism because it creates a commodity, impregnates it with ethicality, and invites individuals into consumption patterns as a ‘solution’” (Turje 2012, p. 129). Drolet and Sampson (2017) emphasize that, as a community, members are passionate about participating in climate change adaptation, it is the responsibility of social workers to embrace a community-driven approach to partner with community members to advocate and change oppressive structures, develop partnerships between stakeholders, government officials, and residents, propose sustainable solutions and mobilize community members. Social workers can pay heed to the way climate change messages are portrayed. Often, the language used to make people aware of the dire need can exacerbate eco-anxiety and feelings of helplessness (Kosec and Mo 2017; Rivera-Arriaga et al. 2021). Innovative social work interventions could be developed to utilize social workers’ community-based roles to ensure that people inundated with lousy news participate in solution-finding, including sustainable farming practices and community partnership.

The literature highlights effective interventions in existing structures within the community, including churches, schools, and other community resources (Heflinger and Christens 2006). Social work practitioners could engage within these structures to mitigate the stigma of accessing resources and reduce barriers to related health and social care (e.g., mental health services). Furthermore, social workers can embrace these community participatory interventions to build resilience and sustainability by contributing social work knowledge and approaches to supporting people and contributing to disaster preparedness (Lindberg et al. 2017). Engaging rural residents, and utilizing their networks to connect individuals to services, distribute information in the face of climate change, and develop community-based pre-disaster preparedness plans could be further developed in social work research and practice.

For social workers to mitigate the impact of disasters, practitioners need to recognize their inherent value and potential in their community work (Wu 2021). Social workers in rural settings often find themselves in generalist roles as they work in various locations with a diverse age range (Waltman 2011). As noted earlier, community members experience rural life distinctly, including women, children and youth, and BIPOC groups. Social work practitioners should strengthen their capacity of integrating service users’ demographic factors to develop customer-driven services in rural communities. Engaging diverse rural residents in the development of community-oriented service programs should be further developed in rural areas.

4.3. Policymaking

Social work is heavily impacted by social policy, in turn, informing social policy decisions. Social policy adapts to the evolution of society, and in recent years, these adaptations have integrated environmental justice and sustainability, particularly with the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda. Policy targets disaster mitigation and climate change adaptation strategies in response to climate change and should consider the social vulnerabilities of impacted populations to instill resilience in rural communities, especially the demographic variables of these populations (Askew and Sherval 2012; Rhubart and Sun 2021; Saxby et al. 2018). “Social work practice has a vital role in promoting, advocating, and implementing sustainable and adaptive strategies in social development, ultimately balancing people’s needs with environmental concerns” (Drolet and Sampson 2017, p. 64). More social policies worldwide promoting risk communication, disaster mitigation, and support for vulnerable and marginalized populations (Wu and Mackenzie 2021) and more social work pedagogical innovations and involvement in supporting sustainable development in their practice are needed (Wu and Greig 2022). Social work policy has long embraced a person-in-environment theoretical foundation; however, in practice, this largely ignores the natural environment and its’ interconnections with service users (Doll et al. 2022). Though national and international federations of social work are integrating an environmental focus, the action of social worker involvement is limited as there remains a research–practice deficit.

Rural residents’ voices are often excluded from policy discussions regarding agriculture and environmentalism (Riebschleger 2007). There is a need for policy to support these individuals as they have no power when forced to leave their land and livelihood (Lindberg et al. 2017) and increase vulnerability for previously marginalized populations (Sam et al. 2017). Social workers’ role in the policy realm includes “advocating for policies that are responsive, rights-based, and transformative; they also hold governments accountable for public policies and their implementation” (Lombard and Viviers 2020, p. 2268). There is a need for a holistic approach to communicating and engaging residents’ needs (Wu 2022). Social workers can embrace an eco-social framework that acknowledges the importance of the Indigenous worldview’s recognition of the interconnectedness of people and the earth and understands overall health and well-being (Powers et al. 2021).

5. Conclusions

This systematic review strived to document the current social work contributions (research, practice, and policymaking) towards climate change, livelihood, and sustainable rural community development. Through analysis and knowledge synthesis, it was determined that though environmental justice and sustainability have been included in recent years in national and international professional associations of social work (IFSW 2009) and related social work education and training (Papadimitriou 2022), there are significant areas for the profession to contribute in improving in the rural areas. Apparent themes from the literature align with social work research, practice, and policymaking. For social work research, it was discovered that the challenges of the rural experience are unique due to toxin exposure and disasters’ disproportionate impact on individuals’ livelihood. In relation to practice supporting rural clients, their demographic factors (gender, age, and race) impacted their access to services, their experiences of environmental injustice, and their response to disasters. The research shed light on areas for social work policy to adapt to provide more support for the unique social vulnerabilities experienced in rural populations concerning the economy, local knowledge mobilization, and agroecology. Though there is a paucity of literature connecting rural livelihood, agricultural communities, climate change, and social work, this will stimulate prospective social workers to practice community-based environmental action in partnership with rural residents and farmers.

Although social workers alone cannot stop imminent climate change and related disasters, social work interventions can actively engage environmental justice and sustainability in practice to protect the environment, advance social justice, and enhance the health and well-being of rural inhabitants. Social work practitioners are best suited to respond to the unique needs of rural residents, working with rural communities to develop disaster mitigation strategies and amplifying local voices. For future rural-oriented, environmentally responsive social work interventions to succeed, the following three aspects represent as potential barriers, which encourage current and future social workers and other professionals to contribute: (1) examination of social work interventions toward building rural community resilience to mitigate the impact of climate change, disaster, and environmental degradation, (2) investigation of the current landscape of social work education to determine educational organizations’ strategies regarding equipping prospective social workers with specific capacities to work with rural inhabitants in response to environmental crises, and (3) enhancement of rural community-driven policy changes to protect those most marginalized by climate change. Social work researchers, practitioners, policymakers, and other stakeholders should collaborate with local rural communities to identify their unique needs and co-develop grassroots strategies toward climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction, ultimately achieving the goal of building resilient, healthy, and sustainable rural communities.