Material History of Ethiopic Manuscripts: Original Repair, Damage, and Anthropogenic Impact

Abstract

Ethiopic manuscript studies have become a rapidly expanding field in recent decades. However, most research has focused on cataloging and textual analysis. This study examines the material traces of original addenda, patterns of deterioration, and desecration of indigenous conservation ethics. A combination of codicological and paleographic methods was used. This approach is vital for documenting historical features, understanding the context of use, and informing conservation efforts. The research involved assessing twenty-eight physical manuscripts from two collections in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Additionally, twenty-seven digital copies from the Endangered Archives Program, the Hill Museum & Manuscript Library, and the University of Cambridge Digital Library repositories were consulted. The findings revealed original features like holes, repairs, and scribal corrections. Damage such as tears, creases, dirt, fading, erasures, and recent writing was also identified. These results reveal the material history of the manuscripts. Furthermore, both domestic and international stakeholders have adversely affected these manuscripts through erasure, dispossession, and appropriation. This study proposes ethical guidelines for recent additions to the manuscripts and for preserving the original addendum. It also underscores the necessity for additional material research, enhancements in conservation practices, and efforts to raise awareness.

1. Introduction

Ancient manuscript heritage has inestimable value and requires systematic material studies and conservation research. Material features that reflect the social contexts of manuscript production and use constitute fundamental elements of scholarly investigation (Gobbitt 2014). Scribes and parchment makers often leave discernible imprints on manuscripts, which are shaped by their cultural backgrounds, intended purposes, levels of skill and knowledge, and geographic locations. These cultural traces are crucial for deepening our understanding of manuscript history (Kwakkel 2015). In addition, manuscripts contain abundant evidence on how these artifacts were handled by both their producers and subsequent users (Aikenhead 2020). For example, repairs made to manuscripts can reflect the owner’s social status, the craftsmanship involved, the cultural value attributed to the object, and the extent of its use (De Vries 2016). Furthermore, identifying the nature and causes of damage is essential for developing an effective conservation and management plan and for promoting awareness of the proper care of collections (De Valk 2018). Therefore, a careful examination of the material aspects of manuscripts is vital in order to inform conservation strategies (De Vries 2016). Accordingly, this study explores the material history of Ethiopic manuscripts.

Ethiopia is one of the few countries in Africa with a unique indigenous ancient writing tradition. This writing culture used a variety of support materials. Stone and, in rare cases, iron were used as writing materials in northern Ethiopia before the second century A.D. Later, in the third and fourth centuries, stone, metal, clay, and wood became dominant (Winslow 2015; ተፈራ 2002). Parchment, which is the primary subject of this study, has served as a principal and long-established writing material in Ethiopia. An archeological study has traced the origins of parchment production back to the middle of the first millennium BC. Tools used in the preparation of parchment were discovered at the Seglamen site and dated to the Pre-Aksumite period (Phillipson 2013). Paper was introduced as a writing medium later. Its widespread use is evident in the Islamic manuscripts of eastern Ethiopia (Mirza 2017)

Extensive use of parchment for writing has been recorded since the introduction of Christianity to the country in the fourth century AD (ተፈራ 2002). In particular, the arrival of the Nine Saints in the late fifth century gave momentum to manuscript production, with surviving evidence such as the sixth-century Gospels preserved at Enda Abba Garima (Dawit 2019; Nosnitsin 2023a). The Nine Saints translated religious texts from Greek into Geez (ጌታቸው 2020). There are also claims of translations from Syriac (Dawit 2023; Babu 2022). The number of surviving manuscripts gradually increases from the 14th century onwards. The manuscripts are the products of indigenous composition and translations from foreign languages such as Greek, Syriac, and Arabic (ማማሩ 2015; ጌታቸው 2020). They cover a wide range of subjects, including religion, philosophy, history, law, politics, culture, and science (Mersha 2011a).

In line with this, the Ethiopian orthodox church contributes a lot to the development of the national literary tradition and art (Dawit 2019; ጀማነህ 1963). The role of church education (Abnet Temhrt) had a significant contribution to the continuity of the book craft in the country (ጌታሁን 1960). Currently, many churches and monasteries own ancient codices and scrolls, invariably written on parchment. The production of parchment manuscripts in the country has also survived to the present day (Krzyzanowska 2015; Tomaszewski and Gervers 2015). These manuscripts continue to serve both the spiritual and secular aspects of life in the country (Yirga 2020). They are primary sources of history and preserve indigenous knowledge (Gezae 2024). Culturally, manuscripts symbolize scholarship and are revered as sacred objects (Mersha 2011b). They are icons for cultural legacy from a glorious past, featuring a variety of themes, textures, esthetics, scripts, calligraphy, miniatures, and designs (Yonas n.d.).

Ethiopic manuscripts are increasingly drawing scholarly attention, particularly from the fields of philology, codicology, and conservation studies. Philological studies have played a pivotal role in the cataloging of Ethiopic manuscripts preserved in European collections (Elagina 2023; Lusini 2017). Substantial efforts in the modern cataloging of Ethiopian manuscripts commenced in the 1970s with the initiation of the Ethiopian Manuscript Microfilm Library (EMML) project (Getachew 1975; Macomber 1975a, 1975b; Stewart 2017). Additionally, the two-volume contributions from the Ethiopian Heritage Authority (EHA), based on the inventories, were crucial (ሰለሞን 2011; ተስፋዬ 2010). Recently, the Department of Linguistics and Philology at Addis Ababa University and the Department of Geez at Bahir Dar University have both contributed valuable theses on manuscript cataloging, showcasing their dedication to advancing this important field (Admasu 2011; Alemnew 2022; Ayalew 2009; Ayinekulu 2020; Fitsumbirhane 2009; Minasse 2009; Tesfaye 2011; Worku 2010; ማማሩ 2015).

Scholarly contributions also focused on ethnographic studies of the materials and techniques used in manuscript production (Sergew 1981; Winslow 2015; ተፈራ 2002). Codicological studies that focus on the material aspects of Ethiopic codices are another emerging topic (Balicka-Witakowska et al. 2015; Dege-Müller 2014; G/Mariam 2020; Nosnitsin 2023b; Del Sasso 2022, 2023; Teshager 2019). In addition, material characterization aimed at conservation has been conducted (Bausi et al. 2020; Nosnitsin 2014; Nosnitsin et al. 2014; Vadrucci et al. 2023; Weronika and Tomaszewski 2016; Wion 1999). Furthermore, the state of traditional preservation was examined (Gezae 2018; Girmay 2016; Mersha 2011a).

The studies reviewed above suggest that scholarly inquiry into the materials and conservation practices of Ethiopic manuscripts is still in its early stages. This can be attributed to several factors. The lack of scholars specializing in Ethiopic manuscript studies and the methodological gap are the primary bottlenecks (Nosnitsin 2012). The scholars focus solely on the textual aspect and the cover and decorative parts of the manuscripts. The socio-political conditions, the geographical remoteness, the inaccessible location, and the scattered distribution halted the progress of the research (Ayinekulu 2020; Minasse 2009; Tesfaye 2011; Teshager 2019). There is also a lack of awareness about the physical attributes of these valuable manuscripts (Gezae 2018). The decelerated development of modern conservation practices, introduced after the 1950s, has also had its own impact (Hagos 2023).

This study aims to address the research gap in Ethiopian manuscript studies noted above and, as such, focuses on the material features of manuscripts. Material features such as original additions, marks of use, damage, deliberate erasure, and desecration will be the primary focus of this study. The objective is to answer questions such as: What are the main physical features of the bookblocks of Ethiopic manuscripts? Which forms of deterioration/degradation are observed on the manuscripts? How were the manuscripts subjected to human-induced damage and loss? The discussion is divided into three sections for thematic presentation. The first section looks at the features of the manuscripts that appear to be damaged but are not. The second and third sections are about actual damage and loss to the manuscripts. It is divided into two parts: natural deterioration and desecration.

2. Result and Discussion

2.1. A Look at Historical Features

2.1.1. Evidence of Original Damage and Repairs

The assessment revealed the presence of original holes within the bookblock of the manuscripts. The originality of holes can be discerned through the coherence of words, phrases, and sentences. The Haymanote Abew (collection of homilies) manuscript in Debre Mariam Monastery on Lake Tana is an illustrative example of the case. On f33r of this manuscript, the scribe wrote a single word in two places due to the hole (Haymanote Abew n.d.). The same case is visible on IES MS 76 at f46r, as shown in Figure 1a (Psalter (IES MS 76) n.d.). In addition, the codices, including IES MS 3164 (f40), IES MS 439 (f32 & 38), IES MS 50 (f35, 40, & 130), IES MS 377 (f3, 26, & 101), are some of the notable examples with small original holes (Book of Jubilees n.d.; Hagiography of Abriham Yshaq and Yakob n.d.; Liturgy n.d.; Psalter (IES MS 50) n.d.).

The size and location of holes determine the nature of the stitching and function of the folios. The unstitched holes are found either at the edge of the folio or as small gaps that do not affect the writing. In rare cases, leaves with bigger holes are used as end leaves (Sergew 1981). The holes have a regular circular, oval, or crescent shape. A Gospel, at the University of Cambridge, has unsewn small circular holes in the middle of the texts on 8r and 85r (Gospel Book n.d.). The book of Cyril in the same collection has a crescent-shaped hole on the edge of f62 (Figure 1b) (Cyril n.d.).

Holes in parchment typically occur as a result of defects in the original skins, as well as damage incurred during skinning, dehairing, cleaning of the flesh side, and stretching on the frame (Vnouček 2022). Apart from these causes, the frequency of holes in Ethiopic manuscripts may also result from the absence of liming, which necessitates dehairing through repeated scraping (Winslow 2015). Holes provide essential clues about historical parchment-making practices, enabling researchers to identify the species used and to differentiate the hair side from the flesh side of the skin (Vnouček 2022). This denotes the importance of distinguishing original holes from subsequent damage and preserving the former to enable informed conservation decisions.

Conversely, larger holes within the writing columns are stitched using a variety of materials. The Service Book (ff. 17–18) and Gospel Book (f. 52) in Cambridge have stitched holes (Gospel Book n.d.; Service Book n.d.). As indicated in Figure 2a, the most common patterns of stitching are the running stitch, the decorative stitch, and the stretch zig-zag stitch. A sample zig-zag stitch taken from f134 of a codex at IES is presented below in Figure 2b (Genealogy of Ethiopian Kings n.d.). Similarly, large gaps were mended using additional parchment as the mending material and threads, as evidenced in Figure 2c (Homily of Mikael n.d.). Prior to the 19th century, stitching threads for holes and gaps were made of sinew, parchment, and cotton. Gut was also used to cover the holes (Winslow 2015). The sinew, parchment, and gut could be collected from the animals slaughtered for their skin.

Original repairs on ancient manuscripts commonly appear as patches and stitching (Aikenhead 2020; Vnouček 2022). These types of stitching compensate for the inherent defect in the raw material and serve as protection from further damage and as decoration (Aikenhead 2020; Housley 2015). However, in the case of Ethiopic manuscripts, the stitches appear to have been done solely to prevent further damage. Stitching, in this case, is used to maintain the parchment’s functionality. Original repairs deserve close examination to evaluate their technical characteristics, structural design, and implications for long-term preservation (Sciacca 2010, p. 58).

2.1.2. Scribes, Corrections, and Additions

This section addresses writing interventions that may influence the material characteristics of the manuscripts. This emanates from differences in ink and pigments resulting from the involvement of several scribes, as well as corrections and additions. There was a longstanding tradition among institutions, noble patrons, and royal families to commission multiple scribes for the production of books (Guidi 1961). For instance, ten royal scribes participated in the production of an Old Testament book commissioned by Queen Mariam Sena, the wife of Emperor Sarsa-Dengel (r. 1563–1597) (Old Testament n.d.a). In addition, variations in calligraphic styles also indicate the participation of multiple scribes, as evidenced in the codex IES MS 777. In this codex, the miracles of Mary were written by Gebre Merawi (Figure 3a), whereas the miracles of Jesus were written by Tewolde Hitsan (Figure 3b) (Hagiography of Abriham Yshaq and Yakob n.d.)

The corrections in the context of Ethiopic manuscripts have two forms. The first method involves rewriting the original text over the erased text, while the second involves adding corrections in the intercolumnar spaces or along the margins. As shown in Figure 4a, for example, in IES MS 439 (70r), a small correction is visible on the erased original text (Book of Jubilees n.d.). Another form of correction occurs between the writing lines (Figure 4b) (Hagiography of Saints n.d.). In these corrections, variations in calligraphic style and ink color are clearly discernible, indicating a distinct intervention from the original scribe.

Additions are often found in the form of testing ink, testing reed pen, and notes. To test the ink or the reed pen, the phrase በስመ: አብ:ወወልድ: ወመንፈስቅዱስ (in the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit), ፈቲነብርዕ (testing reed pen), and ንዌጥንበረድኤተ እግዚአብሔር (we begin with the help of God) are commonly written. The Books of Hawi and Ankritos from Kibran Gebreil’s monastic collection have pen-testing texts (Book of Ankritos n.d.; Book of Hawi n.d.). The Book of Ankritos includes an ownership note and several ink pen trials (Figure 5). The folios used for testing inks and pens are typically the end leaves, as exemplified by the Miracle of Mary manuscript from Bichena Giyorgis (UNESCO 1970). Because the end leaves are close at hand, scribes frequently used them for ink trials and ownership notes (Trettien 2024, p. 161). Sometimes the scribes also wrote words from the main content of the books.

The manuscripts also contain supplementary notes, including inventories of church property, records of gift transfers, commercial transactions, and other (Ancel 2016, pp. 271–83). A religious order prohibiting the entry of women into the monastery of Daga Estifanos is written in the Homily of Michael at f2r found in the monastery’s collection (Homily of Michael n.d.). The Fetha Nagest (Law of Kings) codex preserved at the monastery of Zur Amba in South Gondar contains four end leaves (f1–2 & 175–176) of annotations documenting land sales, purchases, and gift transfers (Fetha Nagest (EMML 7601) n.d.). In particular, the gift and commercial exchanges are secular themes. This evidence suggests that contracting parties perceived manuscripts as reliable instruments of protection and permanence, which facilitated their willingness to enter long-term contractual arrangements (ዳንኤል 2008). Furthermore, some of these later additions appear as prayers. Individuals who owned these codices often wrote personal texts, such as prayers to Jesus and Mary (e.g., አቡነዘበሰማያት and በሰላመቅዱስገብራኤል), as shown in a manuscript found at the University of Cambridge (Praise of Mary n.d.).

The textual aspects of different scribes, corrections, and additions give voice to the history of each manuscript by reflecting its production, transmission, dissemination, and reception, involving authors, editors, artisans, commentators, readers, sellers, owners, and other agents (Ciotti and Lin 2016). These features are significant in Ethiopic manuscripts, as they convey the history of the manuscripts (Ancel 2016; Teshager 2019). Nevertheless, such histories also reveal differences in material composition (Cohen et al. 2024). An investigation of an Ethiopic manuscript from Ura Mesqel confirms material variation between the original writing and later additions (in the form of corrections) (Bausi et al. 2020). The material differences in Ethiopian inks and pigments originate from the diversity of recipes (Wion 1999). These differences influence the degradation behavior of ink, which is determined by the composition of the ink, pigments, minerals, and binding agents, and environmental conditions (Panda et al. 2021).

2.2. Common Deterioration

2.2.1. Surface Dirt Stains and Fading

Observations on the collections indicate that Ethiopic manuscripts found in Ethiopia are more severely damaged by surface dirt and stains than those in Europe. The reason for this disparity can be a subject for further investigation. However, possible cleaning treatments carried out by custodians, the time of entry into collections, and use for daily religious practices may contribute significantly to the difference in the level of damage. Nevertheless, as shown in Figure 6a, traces of surface dirt and the remains of a dead insect are also visible in the collections housed at the Cambridge University Library (Cyril n.d., 18th–19th century).

Comparatively, manuscripts in the collections of Romanat Qidus Michael and May Wayni are severely deteriorated, particularly from dust staining (The Acts of Ananya n.d.; The Book of Consolation n.d.; Tomaszewski and Gervers 2015). The manuscripts from the Institute of Ethiopian Studies exhibit similar patterns of deterioration. In the most severe circumstances, the dust stain covers several folios in the text block. The last folio of IES MS 98 shows clear evidence of surface dust stains, which nearly cover the entire page (Figure 6b) (Hagiography of Saint Gebere Menfes Kidus n.d.). As shown in Figure 6c, water damage is another problem that can be seen on Ethiopic manuscripts (Psalter (IES MS 50) n.d.).

Surface dirt and stains on parchment manuscripts can be induced by moisture, dust, soot, blood, iron rust, adhesives residues, and microorganisms (Abdel-Maksoud et al. 2020). These types of deterioration are clear signs of intensive use, poor storage conditions, poor cleaning, and attack by insects and rodents (De Valk 2018). The marks observed on the Ethiopic manuscripts also reveal the same pattern. In addition, studies in the collections of northern Ethiopia confirm intensive use and storage in unsuitable environmental conditions (Gezae 2018; Girmay 2016; Tomaszewski and Gervers 2015).

Fading can result from damage to the writing surface, intentional erasure, or natural aging (Keith and Easton 2003). The material characteristics of the writing inks and pigments can also affect fading (Panda et al. 2021). The observed codices show fading on the initial pages, in the red rubrication, and along the tidelines. A prayer book at IES, shown in Figure 7, could serve as a bold example of the fading of rubrication (Psalter and Angels Praise Her n.d.). This fading is attributed to mechanical stress from frequent opening, and the effect diminishes in subsequent pages.

The more frequent fading of red ink compared to black ink is linked to deficiencies in the binding medium, inadequate fermentation processes, or the inherent properties of the materials, such as red pepper and red earth, used in their preparation (Mazen et al. 2021; Panda et al. 2021). Black ink appears more susceptible to fading due to moisture, as illustrated in Figure 6c (Psalter (IES MS 50) n.d.). This property of black ink is linked to its carbon-based composition and its solubility in water (Wion 1999).

2.2.2. Tear and Creases

In this section, illustrative examples of tears from the studied manuscripts are presented. A folio fragment from the University of Cambridge has tears across the left edge (Service Book n.d.). Another codex of the same collection has eight holes caused by insect attack (Ethiopian Manuscripts 19th century). Tearing is the most recurrent type of damage in the IES collection (Figure 8a). Twenty-five percent of the recorded damage of the studied manuscripts from the IES collection had a tear. Surface dirt is also present on a significant number of the manuscripts (Figure 8b).

In comparison with the original damage holes discussed in the previous section, tears have an irregular shape, as shown in Figure 9 (Gospel of John n.d.). The edges of the codices have more tears than the interior folios. The tears are more severe in older manuscripts. This indicates that manuscripts from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries are more likely to have tears than those from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The severity of the tears is therefore related to both use and age.

Tears and creases are indicative traits of physical deterioration in Ethiopic codices, typically resulting from multiple contributing factors. In the case of Ethiopic codices, pests are one of the causes of tears. Pests could enter the collection through the openings in traditional church and storehouse buildings (Gezae 2018). Poor storage conditions, mold growth, and construction defects attract pests to collections (De Valk 2018, pp. 101 and 148). High humidity in the former cave-like storage areas may have created favorable conditions for mold growth. Both natural caves and constructed cave-like structures served as repositories during times of crisis (Mersha 2011a). In addition, the continued use of codices for religious practices, whether in churches or in private hands, also increases the risk of tears and creases (Elagina 2023). Furthermore, creases are caused by improper storage and shelving. Traditionally, codices, whether large or small, have been stored horizontally on top of each other (Di Bella and Sarris 2021).

The codices exhibit additional signs of deterioration, including material loss and breaks in the binding threads and folios. The material loss ranges from small fragments to entire leaves. The leading causes are pest attacks and mechanical stress. Figure 10a, IES MS 76, shows material loss at the top edge due to pest attack (Psalter 16th century). The tension from the stitches is causing the sewing threads to tear through the folios. In this case, IES MS 26, shown in Figure 10b, the thread is causing material loss (Harp of Praise, Ritual for Penitential Baptism, Hymn to Mary with the Saints n.d.).

2.3. The Desecration of the Spiritual Order

2.3.1. Spiritual Order for Physical Preservation

This section addresses anthropogenic factors that damage and desecrate spiritual orders. There are paratexts in Ethiopic manuscripts that convey messages intended to deter future transgressions against the manuscripts. This spiritual order is often expressed in the form of anathemas. Anathema is execration, an anathema, or a denunciation by ecclesiastical authority against social misbehavior (James Bible Dictionary n.d.). This definition is workable in the Ethiopian context. It involves excommunication, cursing, confinement, and the establishment of systems. In short, it is the means of dissecting the misbehaving individual in his flesh and spirit (ኅብረት 2007, pp. 7–12; ዳንኤልገብረ መስቀል ቀኖ 2019).

The spiritual orders found in these codices serve to safeguard them against deletion, rewriting, theft, and appropriation. It is common to find a phrase ዘሠረቃ፡ ወዘፈሐቃ፡ ወዘተአገላ፡ ወዘንሥአ፡ በኃይሉ፡ ለዛቲመጽሐፍ… ውጉዘ፡ ለይኩን (anyone who steals, erases, harms, and takes it by force… shall be execrated). Priests have the authority to pass anathemas, as priests within the Ethiopic Christian tradition are considered as examples of Peter and Paul, as it is revealed in Matthew 16: 18–19 (ኅብረት 2007, p. 17). As a result, the paratexts in the manuscript cement the order by including the phrase በአፈ/በሥልጣነ፡ ጴጥሮስ፡ ወጳውሎስ፡ ውጉዘ፡ ለይኩን (execrated in the word/authority of Peter and Paul). This tradition has been important in protecting the cultural heritage from crimes. During Emperor Menelik’s reign, for instance, his soldiers had taken ecclesiastical objects. The emperor was informed about the case and asked the soldiers to return the objects taken from the church. The priests also pronounced execrations upon the soldiers who refused to return. This was effective in collecting the objects (ኅብረት 2007, pp. 25–26).

2.3.2. Desecrated Spiritual Orders

Both local and foreign actors have desecrated these spiritual orders, causing extensive damage and contributing to the loss of invaluable cultural heritage. Domestically, the damage was perpetrated through recent additions, erasure, and removal from its original location. Recent additions in this sense mean notes made with pen, pencil, and permanent markers. Such writings in Ethiopic manuscripts appear in various forms, including tests of writing materials, ownership claims, corrections, rewrites, notes on content, records of commercial exchanges, and donations to churches. As observed in the (Book of Antiphonal Chants n.d.), folio 19v, from the Monastery of May Wayni (Figure 11a), a recent ownership note has been written using a pen (Book of Antiphonal Chants n.d.). The most frequently used colors in writing are blue, red, black, and purple. There are also cases in which letters written with pen or marker bleed through or transfer to other pages. The Gospel from Romanat Qeddus Mika’el and the Book of Images from IES exhibit such damage, as indicated in Figure 11b,c (Four Gospels n.d.; Image of Mary n.d.). Writing of page numbers and comments is also a later addition by either readers or the custodian, as shown in Figure 11d,e (Job and Jeremiah n.d.; Old Testament n.d.b).

Writing and stamping during digitization have similar effects. The custodians and individuals in charge of digitization wrote page numbers and notes. Digitization often involves writing page numbers on the manuscripts using a pencil and pen. Initially, the codices didn’t include page numbers, but the assessment reveals that the libraries have now added page numbers using Arabic numerals. There are drops of ink within the text block and page numbers that bleed and spread into large areas, as shown in Figure 12a (Psalter and Angels Praise Her n.d.). Stamps have been put on manuscripts by monasteries and libraries. The manuscripts digitized by EMML (Figure 12b) reveal that the library’s stamp persisted through the digitization process (Book of Ankritos n.d.). Similarly, digital copies from the Endangered Archives Programme confirm the continued practice of stamping by the owner institution.

Private and institutional owners used to replace the names of former custodians. More often, the names of scribes and commissioners were replaced by those of the latter owners. The Book of Praises at IES is a good example of this. In the initial pages, the name Hailu Atinafu was written in pencil. However, at the end of the prayer, the name Gebre Mariam is written in the original ink. This book belonged to Gebre Mariam and was later owned by Hailu Atinafu (Praises of Mary, Gate of Light, Angels Praise Her n.d.). In addition, many codices changed hands at various times, despite the prohibition of the spiritual orders. Erasure can be carried out in two ways: first, by rubbing the text with a wet cloth; second, by scraping the writing lines with a sharp blade (ተፈራ 1987).

Although the effect of inks from pens and markers on manuscripts remains a topic for experimental research, these additions disrupt both the esthetic and historical authenticity of the manuscripts (Steele and Webster 2025, p. 62). In addition, commercial pens are unsuitable for manuscripts because their inks are soluble, smear easily, fade, and become acidic over time (Paper-Based Records 2022). Furthermore, ink transfer, bleeding, and ghosting on Ethiopic manuscripts have become increasingly evident. These problems arise from recent additions, such as writing on faded or erased parts, notes in the margins, adding page numbers, and stamping. These ongoing addenda must be halted through training and awareness creation efforts.

International agents also dishonored the spiritual order by taking them outside. The scribes wrote the prohibition of buying, selling, and taking by force. The term ወዘንሥአ፡ በኃይሉ፡… ውጉዘ፡ለይኩን (the one who has taken by force shall be accursed) is frequently mentioned for this purpose. The Law of Kings (148r) at the University of Cambridge is an instructive example of the case (Fetha Nagest (Or. 2122) n.d.). Nevertheless, manuscripts have been transported to the northern hemisphere since the 15th century. The agents were travelers, missionaries, military personnel, and scholars. As a result, more than 6500 manuscripts are now dispersed across Europe and North America. The Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, the Bibliothèque nationale de France, and the British Library hold the largest collections of Ethiopic codices (Yirga 2020).

3. Materials and Methods

This study examined fifty Ethiopic manuscripts dating from the 16th to the 19th centuries. Some of these were physical copies, while others were digital copies (

Table 1. Geographic distribution, number, and production period of sample manuscripts.

No.	Physical Location	Collection/Digital Archive	Sample Manuscripts	Period of Production	Type of Copies Observed
1	IES, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia	IES collection	23	16th–19th century	Physical
2	NALS, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia	NALS collection	5	17th–19th century	Physical
3	Gondar & Gojjam, Northwestern Ethiopia	Hill Museum & Manuscript Library	10	16th–19th century	Digital
4	University of Cambridge, UK	University of Cambridge Digital Library	7	16th–19th century	Digital
5	Romanat Qidus Michael & May Wayni, Northern Ethiopia	Endangered Archives Programme	10	16th–18th century	Digital

). The physical copies consisted of twenty-eight manuscripts from the Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) and the National Archives and Library Service (NALS), observed in November 2024 and June 2025. The selection method for the manuscripts was random sampling using the catalog of the IES and NALS. The remaining twenty-seven were digital copies from the Endangered Archives Programme (EAP), the Hill Museum and Manuscript Library (HMML), and the University of Cambridge Digital Library. Digital archives were selected through purposive sampling based on the manuscripts’ geographical origin. The physical copies of the digitized manuscripts in the EAP and HMML collections are located in the northern, northwestern, and central regions of Ethiopia. The digital collection in the University of Cambridge Digital Library includes manuscripts that arrived in the UK from the 1860s onward. Examining both physical and digital copies of manuscripts enabled the identification of similarities and differences in features, historical experience, and deterioration across regions. Table 1 lists the number of manuscripts observed, along with their numbers and locations.

The manuscripts from these collections and digital archives were analyzed using paleographic and codicological methods. Paleography is the systematic study of all aspects of hand-written books (Brown n.d.). It is used to identify the original physical holes from later damage and writings of different scribes. It is also used to understand the violence against established preservation ethics (reconstruct the anthropogenic factors), specifically erasure, rewriting, and relocation. Codicology, alternatively known as book archeology, is an emerging field of study that examines the historical and cultural aspects of manuscripts based on physical structure and distinctive features (Şeşen 2024). Descriptive codicology is used here to discuss the diverse types of damage in the bookblocks of manuscripts. Furthermore, the literature from journal articles, books, and web sources was consulted to aid interpretation and analysis.

4. Conclusions

Ethiopic manuscripts are among the world’s oldest writing traditions. However, this manuscript tradition lacks appropriate material and conservation research. This issue arises from a lack of specialized scholars, limited accessibility, and insufficient and slow-paced conservation efforts. Examining the historical context through physical analysis is crucial for the effective conservation of manuscripts. To this end, an observational study using mixed-methods paleography and codicology was conducted on selected collections. The observation of the collections revealed original holes, as well as sewn repairs, corrections, and text additions. Additionally, surface dirt, stains, fading, tears, creases, erasure, and material loss, induced by both natural and human factors, are evident. This study highlights the importance of employing multiple methods to examine the material aspects of manuscripts, including identifying original holes versus later damage, distinguishing original additions from subsequent writings, and recognizing traditional preservation efforts. It underscores the importance of respecting the physical history of manuscripts, acknowledging the value of paratextual features for material studies, and understanding the common physical damage found in Ethiopic manuscripts. Efforts to conserve this heritage must include establishing ethical guidelines for handling any future additions. It also emphasizes the significance of delineating methodologies for interpreting recent writings as material historical sources while concurrently addressing the issue of ink bleeding that arises from them. This study recommends further investigation to elucidate the underlying processes that lead to red ink fading more than black ink, as well as the effects of pen and permanent markers.