Confirmatory Factors Analysis of Multicultural Leadership of Youth in the Three Southern Border Provinces of Thailand

Abstract

Developing multicultural leadership in youth is crucial for fostering social harmony, emphasizing cross-cultural communication, adaptability, creative problem solving, and ethical leadership, particularly in Thailand’s three southern border provinces. This study aimed to analyze the confirmatory factors and assess the validity of the measurement model for multicultural leadership among youth in Thailand’s three southern border provinces. The study sample comprised 640 participants, and the data were analyzed using second-order confirmatory factor analysis. The findings revealed that multicultural leadership among youth in the region consists of the following six key components: (1) awareness and acceptance of cultural diversity, (2) intercultural communication skills, (3) flexibility and adaptability in multicultural contexts, (4) creative problem solving in a multicultural context, (5) building intercultural collaboration networks, and (6) developing culturally relevant morality and ethics. The measurement model demonstrated a good fit with the empirical data. Considering the Chi-square value of 411.81, p-value of 0.07, the relative Chi-square (χ²/df) was 1.11, the Goodness-of-Fitness Index (GFI) was 0.96, the Adjusted Goodness-of-Fitness Index (AGFI) was 0.94, and the Root Mean Square Residuals Index (SRMR) was 0.03. These findings provide valuable insights for formulating effective policies and concrete strategies to enhance and develop multicultural leadership among youth in diverse sociocultural contexts.

1. Introduction

In recent decades, global societies have become increasingly ethnically, religiously, and culturally diverse. While such pluralism can enrich communities, it also presents complex challenges, including marginalization, identity-based conflict, and rising social tensions. In this context, multicultural leadership development, particularly among youth, has emerged as a vital strategy for fostering social cohesion, intercultural dialogue, and sustainable peace. Although much of the literature on youth leadership has focused on Western, post-industrial democracies [1,2], there is a growing need to examine how these dynamics unfold in non-Western, conflict-affected, and culturally complex regions. This study addresses that gap by focusing on the three southernmost provinces of Thailand—Pattani, Yala, and Narathiwat—a region that presents a distinct case for global social science inquiry. These provinces are predominantly inhabited by ethnic Malay Muslims and have long experienced political marginalization, cultural contestation, and episodes of violence within a Thai Buddhist majority nation-state [3]. The region’s deep-rooted structural inequalities and identity-based grievances provide a rich context for analyzing how youth develop and enact leadership within multicultural realities. From an international comparative perspective, the Thai Deep South shares notable similarities with other contested regions, such as Mindanao in the Philippines, Kashmir in India, and Xinjiang in China [4,5,6]. These are all spaces where efforts at national integration frequently clash with local ethno-religious identities. In such settings, youth often occupy dual roles—either as catalysts for peace or as instruments of division—depending on how their leadership capacities are cultivated or constrained [7].

This study aims to contribute to global youth leadership theory by offering empirical insights from a non-Western, Muslim-majority region governed by a Buddhist-majority state. Here, issues of multiculturalism, conflict sensitivity, and identity negotiation are not theoretical abstractions but lived experiences. By investigating how youth in Pattani, Yala, and Narathiwat acquire and express multicultural leadership competencies, this research seeks to enhance the international understanding of leadership development in resource-constrained, high-tension, and culturally hybrid environments—an area largely underrepresented in global scholarship. Specifically, the study addresses key questions of international relevance, as follows: How can youth leadership contribute to conflict transformation in ethnically and religiously contested regions? What leadership traits best equip youth to navigate tensions between state-driven national identity and localized cultural belonging? How can multicultural leadership be fostered in contexts where democratic institutions may be weak, distrusted, or inaccessible? By bridging local empirical evidence with global theoretical debates, this study deepens our understanding of Thailand’s internal dynamics and offers valuable comparative insights for scholars, practitioners, and policymakers working in other post-conflict or multicultural societies.

The multicultural nature of the Deep South is shaped by its diverse population—ethnically, religiously, and linguistically. While this diversity contributes to a rich cultural landscape, it also creates challenges in the form of misunderstandings, social fragmentation, and tension within communities [8,9,10]. Cultural differences influence social structures, education systems, and economic relationships, demanding constant negotiation and adaptation among groups. In the age of globalization, rapid cultural exchange—driven by digital media and transnational communication—further intensifies these interactions [11,12]. If unmanaged, cultural diversity can lead to stereotyping, mistrust, and identity-based conflict [13]. As such, cultivating multicultural leadership is essential. It empowers individuals—especially youth—to build mutual understanding, navigate cultural complexities, and contribute to peaceful coexistence [14]. Creating inclusive spaces for intercultural dialogue, promoting respect for difference, and encouraging collaborative networks among communities are critical steps toward long-term societal stability [10]. Multicultural leadership fosters essential skills for living and leading in diverse environments, such as openness to difference, intercultural communication, and adaptability [15,16]. Youth with strong multicultural leadership capacities are better prepared to engage constructively with others, reduce prejudice, and manage intergroup tensions. These competencies are relevant to peacebuilding and to broader processes of democratization and inclusive development. Effective multicultural youth leadership involves listening across cultural lines, recognizing the values embedded in different worldviews, and using communication as a bridge to shared understanding [17]. It cultivates empathy, critical thinking, and collaborative problem solving—qualities essential for leading in culturally plural societies. Youth leaders who possess these qualities can anticipate cultural conflicts, respond constructively, and design context-sensitive solutions that support both individual well-being and community resilience [18]. Nonetheless, cultural differences can also give rise to miscommunication and social discord, particularly when youth lack the skills or support systems to manage diversity effectively [19]. The current cultural crisis has exposed a deficit in youth leadership training in this area, often resulting in dissatisfaction, disengagement, or even conflict. Therefore, preparing youth to become competent multicultural leaders is essential for local development and contributing to broader regional and global peace [20].

A review of previous research reveals a significant gap in studies focused on the characteristics of multicultural leadership in youth leaders. Most research has concentrated on the development of multicultural leadership in executives or government personnel, rather than in youth leaders, despite the clear need to cultivate such leadership in the younger generation [9]. Therefore, fostering these leadership traits in youth is crucial for promoting peace, understanding, and harmony, particularly in the three southern border provinces. The study identifies the following six essential components for youth multicultural leadership within a context of cultural diversity: (1) awareness and acceptance of diversity, (2) cross-cultural communication skills, (3) flexibility and adaptability, (4) creative problem solving, (5) building intercultural networks, and (6) developing morality and ethics rooted in culture [9,21]. Awareness and acceptance of diversity cultivate an open attitude toward differences and help individuals recognize the value of various cultures [22]. Intercultural communication competence involves the development of communication skills that reduce conflict and foster mutual understanding [23]. Flexibility and adaptability refer to the ability to respond to change and collaborate effectively with individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds [24]. Creative problem solving emphasizes peaceful approaches to address conflicts and challenges within society [25]. Building intercultural networks encourages positive interactions with people from different cultural backgrounds [12]. Finally, developing culturally relevant morality and ethics involves promoting ethical leadership, integrity, and the capacity to guide society in a positive direction [26]. These elements are essential for fostering peaceful coexistence and empowering youth to become competent leaders in a culturally diverse society.

Developing multicultural leadership in youth leaders is crucial for fostering a peaceful society. Youth who embody this leadership style will understand and appreciate the value of cultural diversity and serve as positive role models for their peers, families, and communities, thereby promoting respectful coexistence in a multicultural context. However, research on multicultural leadership in youth is still limited, and existing tools for assessing such leadership are often inadequate in fully capturing the characteristics of youth leaders, particularly in the three southern border provinces, which have unique sociocultural contexts. Consequently, it is essential to develop assessment tools specifically tailored to the context of youth in these provinces. Such tools will enable accurate and reliable evaluation of youth leadership, ensuring that the assessed leaders possess the attributes necessary for effective multicultural leadership. The results of this research will have significant implications for fostering youth development in culturally diverse regions. These tools will help build the capacity of youth to navigate cultural differences with sensitivity and efficacy. Furthermore, this study will contribute valuable insights into strategies for developing youth with multicultural leadership skills. These insights can inform curriculum development and policy decisions related to youth development in the region. Youth leaders who are well-versed in multiculturalism can help forge networks of young people equipped to guide society toward greater harmony. By reducing conflict and promoting sustainable coexistence, a systematic approach to supporting the development of multicultural leadership in youth will serve as a foundational element for long-term peace and stability of Thai society, particularly in the three southern border provinces.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Conceptual Framework

2.1.1. Definition of Leadership

Leadership is a dynamic process in which an individual exerts influence over others to guide, persuade, and motivate them to willingly align with organizational objectives, fostering collaboration to achieve desired outcomes [27,28,29]. An individual can employ power, influence, or strategic techniques to inspire individuals or groups to engage in activities aimed at achieving specific goals, emphasizing voluntary commitment, trust, and motivation that emerge within relational and situational contexts [30,31]. Leadership is also a process of exerting influence within an organization or educational institution to coordinate, motivate, and foster collaboration among personnel, ensuring that their actions align with established objectives. This perspective underscores that leadership is an inherent trait of an individual and an interactive phenomenon that occurs within a group or organizational context, with the overarching goal of inspiring, persuading, and mobilizing individuals toward a shared vision [32,33]. Furthermore, leadership is a developmental process that can be cultivated through learning. Its essential components include empowering others, providing guidance, and upholding ethical and moral principles. Servant leadership, in particular, emphasizes prioritizing the needs of followers over personal interests, fostering an environment of trust, support, and shared responsibility [34,35]. In summary, leadership is fundamentally an influence-driven process that transpires between leaders and followers, shaped by individual attributes and contextual interactions. Effective leadership entails guiding, inspiring, and motivating individuals through influence, persuasion, and morale building. Crucially, ethical considerations play a pivotal role in ensuring that a leader’s influence is legitimate, widely accepted, and conducive to fostering organizational cohesion and collective success.

2.1.2. Meaning of Multicultural Society

A multicultural society is a social environment in which diverse cultures, ethnicities, languages, religions, and values coexist and interact. For instance, a university that brings together students from various ethnic and cultural backgrounds exemplifies a multicultural setting, where diversity is a symbolic or statistical phenomenon and a lived reality that shapes everyday interactions [36,37]. A multicultural society extends beyond the mere presence of cultural diversity; it also embodies fundamental values that emphasize the recognition, acceptance, and integration of differences in behaviors and practices arising from distinct cultural systems. To foster such a society, institutional and societal mechanisms must actively support open-mindedness and inclusivity by promoting policies and environments that uphold equality and protect cultural differences [38]. The concept of a multicultural society can be understood through three primary dimensions. The demographic dimension refers to the composition of a society characterized by ethnic, cultural, linguistic, and religious diversity, often influenced by globalization, migration, and intercultural interactions. The policy dimension encompasses government and institutional strategies aimed at systematically recognizing and safeguarding cultural diversity. A key example is Canada’s multicultural policy, introduced in 1972, which ensures that all cultural groups within society have equal rights and the freedom to express their cultural identities. The attitudinal dimension pertains to individuals’ perceptions and values regarding cultural diversity, emphasizing the importance of fostering acceptance and appreciation of differences at both personal and societal levels. A positive societal attitude toward cultural diversity contributes to social cohesion and minimizes intergroup conflicts [39,40,41]. A multicultural society, therefore, is characterized by coexistence and by ongoing intercultural exchanges embedded in everyday life. Effective multiculturalism is achieved through a structured and inclusive approach that integrates demographic diversity, supportive policies, and positive societal attitudes, ensuring equitable and harmonious coexistence at all levels. This concept serves as a theoretical framework for research and a crucial foundation for policy formulation and the development of intercultural relations that foster sustainable understanding and cooperation [42]. In conclusion, a multicultural society is one where diverse cultural groups coexist within the same environment, such as in educational institutions, workplaces, and communities. Beyond acknowledging existing diversity, it involves an active process of cultural interaction and exchange, reinforcing values of acceptance, respect, and mutual support. These principles are essential for shaping policies and fostering attitudes that enable harmonious living in today’s increasingly interconnected and multicultural world.

2.1.3. Youth Leadership: A Core Construct in Multicultural Development Contexts

In contemporary scholarship and practice, youth leadership has emerged as a critical construct that encapsulates the capacity of young individuals to influence, guide, and mobilize their peers and communities toward shared goals. It goes beyond traditional notions of positional authority, focusing instead on the development of competencies, values, and behaviors that foster civic responsibility, social cohesion, and cultural inclusivity. In multicultural and post-conflict societies, youth leadership represents a developmental milestone and a vehicle for transformative social change.

Youth leadership can be broadly defined as the process by which young people develop and exercise the ability to influence, motivate, and organize others toward achieving collective objectives, often grounded in values of empathy, inclusion, and ethical responsibility [34,43]. As a construct, it encompasses both individual capacities (such as confidence, decision making, and communication skills) and collective engagement (such as participation in community action, advocacy, and intercultural dialogue). According to Kouzes and Posner [44], effective leadership—whether among youth or adults—requires the following five practices: modeling the way, inspiring a shared vision, challenging the process, enabling others to act, and encouraging the heart. In youth leadership, these practices are shaped by developmental dynamics, identity formation, and contextual influences, such as cultural diversity, socioeconomic factors, and conflict exposure. Moreover, Bass and Riggio [15] argue that leadership in youth is often emergent and situational, driven not by formal titles but by the young leader’s ability to respond to their environment, particularly in complex or multicultural contexts. This is especially pertinent in societies marked by ethnic, linguistic, or religious pluralism, where youth leaders must possess intercultural competence and moral courage to navigate tensions and promote peaceful coexistence.

Youth leadership is distinguished by the following key attributes: (1) Developmental orientation: Youth leadership is inherently tied to personal growth and identity development. It enables young people to explore their values, strengthen their voice, and discover their capacity to effect change [45]. (2) Ethical and moral grounding: Unlike transactional leadership models, youth leadership often places a premium on ethical conduct, compassion, and justice. As Greenleaf’s [46] concept of servant leadership suggests, the most effective leaders are those who put others first and lead with integrity and empathy. (3) Intercultural sensitivity: In multicultural societies, youth leadership requires the ability to engage with diversity constructively. This includes tolerance, active listening, cultural humility, and the skills to bridge divides and foster dialogue [1,2]. (4) Collaborative capacity: Youth leaders frequently operate within peer-based, horizontal structures. Rather than exercising top-down authority, they function as facilitators, conveners, and coalition-builders [47]. (5) Transformative intent: At its core, youth leadership is about creating positive change—whether in schools, communities, or broader society. It seeks to challenge inequities, innovate solutions, and inspire collective action.

In regions such as Thailand’s three southern border provinces—characterized by cultural complexity and historical tension—the concept of youth leadership assumes even greater significance. Here, young leaders are representatives of their age cohort and cultural intermediaries who navigate intergroup dynamics, mediate conflict, and promote mutual understanding. As such, youth leadership intersects closely with concepts like social capital [12], cultural intelligence [48], and constructivist peacebuilding [24]. Empirical studies underscore the importance of equipping young people with leadership skills that are culturally responsive and ethically sound [15,33]. For example, awareness of cultural diversity, effective cross-cultural communication, and the ability to solve problems collaboratively are desirable traits and are essential survival tools in pluralistic societies where misunderstanding can easily escalate into conflict. Moreover, youth leadership has been shown to increase civic engagement, reduce prejudice, and promote resilience in post-conflict or marginalized communities [49]. Thus, fostering youth leadership is both a developmental imperative and a peacebuilding strategy.

Youth leadership, as a core construct, represents more than just the capacity to lead—it reflects a multidimensional interplay of personal growth, moral responsibility, intercultural competence, and collective action. It is especially powerful in multicultural settings where young people are uniquely positioned to challenge inherited divisions and foster inclusive futures. In developing and evaluating leadership frameworks, scholars and practitioners must remain attuned to the specific cultural, political, and psychological contexts in which youth exercise leadership. Ultimately, investing in youth leadership leads to societal resilience, equity, and peace.

2.1.4. Components of Multicultural Leadership

Multicultural leadership is a crucial competency in managing organizations and groups composed of individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds. It involves an in-depth understanding of cultural differences in values, beliefs, and practices to foster effective collaboration and harmonious relationships. Leaders who exhibit multicultural leadership skills can adapt to various cultural contexts and employ appropriate strategies to manage diverse teams, ultimately enhancing organizational efficiency and fostering a collaborative work environment [41]. In an increasingly globalized world, multicultural leadership has become an essential approach to management. Organizations today operate within a globalized framework where collaboration among individuals from different cultural backgrounds is inevitable. Leaders who can navigate and manage these cultural differences effectively contribute significantly to organizational growth and competitiveness. Understanding and respecting cultural diversity enable leaders to create an inclusive and supportive workplace environment. Furthermore, to adapt to diverse cultural settings mitigates potential conflicts, strengthens team cohesion, and optimizes the contributions of individuals from various cultural backgrounds, ultimately driving long-term organizational success [21]. This study identifies six key components of multicultural leadership, forming the framework for the research hypothesis, as follows.

Component 1: Awareness and acceptance of cultural diversity. Awareness and acceptance of diversity constitute the foundation of multicultural leadership, particularly in societies characterized by ethnic, religious, linguistic, and cultural pluralism. While such diversity presents opportunities for collaboration and enrichment, it also poses challenges in fostering peace and reconciliation. Leaders who recognize and embrace cultural differences in beliefs and lifestyles can effectively reduce conflict and promote peaceful coexistence. Cultivating open-mindedness, engaging in self-reflection, and minimizing egocentric biases are fundamental approaches to mitigating prejudice and fostering inclusivity. Additionally, participatory learning processes that encourage interaction among diverse groups are powerful tools for equipping youth with the competencies necessary to navigate complex multicultural societies, thereby fostering long-term peace and sustainability [9,20,21,41].

Component 2: Intercultural communication skills. Intercultural communication skills are pivotal in reducing misunderstandings and alleviating tensions among individuals from different cultural backgrounds. Effective communication fosters trust, strengthens relationships, and enhances mutual understanding. Transparent dialogue, coupled with an adaptive approach to communication that considers cultural nuances, facilitates meaningful exchanges. The integration of digital communication technologies further enhances cross-cultural interactions by broadening the accessibility and effectiveness of communication channels. Moreover, structured activities that encourage collaboration among youth from diverse cultural backgrounds provide valuable opportunities for experiential learning, enabling individuals to challenge preconceived notions, appreciate alternative perspectives, and cultivate positive intercultural relationships [22,42,50,51,52].

Component 3: Flexibility and adaptability in multicultural contexts. Flexibility and adaptability are critical competencies that empower individuals to navigate and thrive within culturally diverse societies. These skills enable youth to address challenges arising from social and cultural differences by adjusting their behaviors, perspectives, and decision-making processes to align with the contextual demands of their environment. Developing cognitive flexibility allows individuals to engage in constructive reasoning, critical thinking, and positive problem-solving approaches when confronted with cultural complexities [23,53]. Furthermore, cultural adaptation plays a central role in fostering peaceful coexistence. Encouraging individuals to embrace cultural diversity and actively participate in cross-cultural exchanges facilitates the development of a sustainable social and psychological equilibrium in multicultural settings [13,54].

Component 4: Creative problem solving in multicultural contexts. Creative problem solving is essential for fostering cooperation, minimizing conflict, and establishing trust within ethnically, religiously, and culturally diverse societies. Effective problem solving in multicultural contexts requires a comprehensive approach that integrates critical analysis, creativity, and inclusive participation. Ensuring all stakeholders have an equitable voice in decision making promotes social cohesion and enhances collective problem-solving capacity [11,17]. Constructive conflict resolution mechanisms, including equitable negotiation and open dialogue, are essential for fostering mutual trust and cooperation. Encouraging active participation in negotiations enables individuals to express their perspectives freely, leading to a deeper understanding of differing viewpoints and long-term peace [24,55].

Component 5: Building intercultural collaboration networks. Establishing and maintaining intercultural networks is a fundamental strategy for promoting social cohesion, reducing prejudice, and fostering trust within diverse communities. Youth leaders who actively engage with individuals from various cultural backgrounds facilitate cross-cultural understanding and strengthening social ties. Collaborative engagement with civil society organizations and community stakeholders enhances trust-building efforts and contributes to sustainable social development [12,56]. Furthermore, effective network-building necessitates active participation in culturally diverse social initiatives, fostering cross-cultural awareness and self-sufficiency within communities. Youth leaders should develop competencies in collaborating with religious organizations, community leaders, and civil society groups to spearhead projects that promote interfaith and intercultural harmony [56,57,58].

Component 6: Developing culturally relevant morality and ethics. Culturally relevant moral and ethical values are a cornerstone of peaceful coexistence in multicultural societies. Instilling moral principles rooted in local religious and cultural traditions fosters social harmony and mitigates the risk of conflict. Cross-cultural learning initiatives that emphasize ethical considerations enable youth to develop respect for diversity, ultimately facilitating peaceful cohabitation [25,59]. Additionally, moral development is an intellectual process that enhances rational decision making and constructive conflict resolution, as an alternative to violence and discrimination. Encouraging empathy and active participation in culturally inclusive religious and social activities strengthens intergroup understanding and minimizes conflicts arising from cultural misunderstandings [60,61].

2.1.5. Theoretical Framework for Multicultural Leadership in Youth

In the contemporary global landscape, marked by unprecedented intercultural interaction and the intensification of identity politics, the imperative for cultivating multicultural leadership among youth has never been more acute. Particularly in culturally complex regions such as Thailand’s three southern border provinces—Pattani, Yala, and Narathiwat—youth leadership development demands a robust theoretical underpinning with insights from cross-disciplinary scholarship. The existing study, which identifies six critical components of multicultural leadership, provides a strong empirical foundation. However, to elevate the theoretical framework to international academic standards, this paper synthesizes conceptual contributions from leading international journals, offering an enriched theoretical lens for each component.

• Awareness and acceptance of cultural diversity. The cornerstone of multicultural leadership lies in the capacity to recognize, accept, and value cultural diversity. This component finds theoretical resonance in Berry’s Acculturation Framework [13], which posits that successful navigation of multicultural environments necessitates a strategy of integration, wherein individuals maintain their cultural identity while engaging with other groups. Banks [1] further underscores this through his multicultural education theory, advocating for culturally responsive pedagogy that nurtures critical consciousness and cultural pluralism. Uygur [20] links mindfulness to intercultural sensitivity, suggesting that awareness and non-judgmental attention to cultural differences significantly reduce ethnocentrism. Moreover, Tip et al. [40] highlight the role of threat perception in attitudes toward multiculturalism, asserting that educational interventions can mitigate perceived cultural threats. Van de Vijver and Breugelmans [62] validate the construct of multiculturalism through empirical methods, confirming that openness to diversity is associated with psychological adaptability and lower intergroup anxiety.
• Intercultural communication skills. Effective intercultural communication is a linchpin in reducing cultural misunderstandings and enhancing social cohesion. Theoretical support for this component is grounded in Giles’ Communication Accommodation Theory [22], which explains how individuals adjust their communication styles to minimize social distance. Ippolito [35] and Halualani [36] emphasize the practical complexities of intercultural communication within academic institutions, providing evidence that fostering dialogic engagement among culturally diverse youth enhances mutual respect. Cherkowski and Ragoonaden [50] propose that intercultural communication competence should be a core element of professional development, particularly in multicultural educational settings. Berger [63] offers a meta-theoretical analysis of interpersonal communication, asserting that adaptive communication behaviors are critical in multicultural contexts. These insights suggest that intercultural communication is linguistic and involves nuanced behavioral, emotional, and cognitive adaptability.
• Flexibility and adaptability in multicultural contexts. Navigating the uncertainties of multicultural settings requires flexibility and cognitive adaptability. This component aligns with Boski’s [54] model of cultural adaptation, which conceptualizes intercultural adjustment as a dynamic interplay of acculturation strategies and situational demands. Masten and Cicchetti [23] contribute through the concept of developmental resilience, emphasizing that adaptive capacities are fostered through exposure to and recovery from stressors. Uhl-Bien et al. [14] extend this view through Complexity Leadership Theory, positing that adaptive leadership is essential in contexts characterized by nonlinearity and cultural fluidity. Sopa and Tuksino [53] validate a measurement model for adaptability in Thai educational contexts, suggesting that cognitive and emotional regulation skills are foundational for youth leadership in diverse environments.
• Creative problem solving in multicultural contexts. Creative problem solving represents a higher-order cognitive function necessary for conflict resolution and innovation in multicultural societies. Lederach [24] introduces the concept of “moral imagination” in peacebuilding, which entails envisioning alternatives to violence rooted in empathy and inclusivity. Fisher, Ury, and Patton [64], through their Principled Negotiation Model, advocate for win–win solutions that respect cultural differences. Xu et al. [55] present meta-analytic evidence that collaborative problem solving significantly enhances critical thinking, particularly in intercultural learning environments. Webb et al. [17] assert that equitable dialogue and group-based decision making foster inclusive problem solving. These theoretical insights underline that effective leadership in multicultural contexts must be grounded in collaborative, empathetic, and culturally sensitive problem–resolution strategies.
• Building intercultural collaboration networks. Intercultural networks serve as the scaffolding for sustained multicultural engagement. Putnam’s Social Capital Theory [12] offers a foundational perspective, distinguishing between bonding and bridging social capital. Bridging capital, in particular, fosters intergroup trust and cooperation. Freeman [57], via Stakeholder Theory, underscores the importance of inclusive engagement in sustaining collaborative initiatives. Greenleaf [46] and his Servant Leadership Model advocate for relational leadership that prioritizes community wellbeing. Ang’ana and Kilika [65] provide empirical evidence from Kenyan organizational settings, demonstrating how collaborative leadership nurtures durable cross-functional networks. Junhasobhaga et al. [56] emphasize the importance of inclusive, intergenerational networks in multicultural Thai communities, reinforcing the argument for strategic partnership building.
• Developing culturally relevant morality and ethics. Morality and ethics, when contextualized within cultural traditions, become potent tools for peacebuilding. Kohlberg [66] provides a structural approach to moral development, while MacIntyre [25] champions virtue ethics, stressing the role of community in moral formation. Noddings [61], through her ethics of care, shifts the focus to relational and empathetic moral reasoning, which is particularly salient in multicultural leadership. Aquino and Reed [67] articulate the concept of moral identity, asserting that individuals who internalize moral values are more likely to engage in prosocial behavior. Hembasat and Pimpasalee [60] explore moral indoctrination within Thai contexts, advocating for a value-based education model. Thanman [59] links ethical development with national strategies in the digital era, suggesting that culturally grounded ethics are crucial for navigating contemporary societal challenges.

The theoretical enhancement of the existing multicultural leadership framework, grounded in international scholarship, significantly enriches its academic rigor and applicability. By embedding each component within robust theoretical paradigms—from acculturation theory and communication accommodation to virtue ethics and complexity leadership—the framework gains conceptual depth and becomes more relevant for policy implementation and curriculum development. This synthesis affirms that multicultural leadership is an integrative, multidimensional construct, necessitating interdisciplinary approaches to cultivate youth leaders equipped for global citizenship and local peacebuilding.

The conceptual framework of this research, which incorporates these six components, is illustrated in Figure 1.

2.2. Sample

2.2.1. Sampling Design and Recruitment Process

The study sample comprised youth leaders from sub-districts under local administrative organizations in Thailand’s three southern border provinces, with a total sample size of 640 participants. The sample size was determined based on the Rule of Thumb commonly applied in multilevel variable analysis, which suggests selecting 10–20 samples per variable [68]. Given that this study included 32 observable variables, multiplying by a factor of 20 resulted in a target sample size of 640 participants.

The study employed a multi-stage stratified random sampling method to select 640 youth leaders from the three southern border provinces of Thailand—Pattani, Yala, and Narathiwat. These provinces were chosen due to their sociocultural diversity and ongoing need for intercultural leadership initiatives. The selection process was structured to ensure representation across districts with varying degrees of conflict intensity and cultural composition, thereby enhancing the ecological validity of the findings.

Step 1: Stratification by conflict intensity. In collaboration with data from the Center of Deep South Watch [69], all districts in the three provinces were categorized into three zones—red zone: high-to-very-high conflict intensity per population, pink zone: moderate conflict intensity, and green zone: low conflict intensity. One district was randomly selected from each zone within each province, resulting in nine districts. This stratification was vital to ensure the inclusion of youth from both stable and volatile areas, acknowledging that leadership development may differ based on exposure to social tension.

Step 2: Sub-district and participant selection. Within each selected district, five sub-districts were chosen using simple random sampling without replacement. From each sub-district, 14–15 youth leaders were identified and invited to participate, yielding 640 participants. The identification and recruitment of youth leaders were facilitated through local administrative organizations (LAOs), educational institutions, and civil society networks. Inclusion criteria required participants to be aged between 15 and 24, reside in the selected sub-district, and hold a role or be actively engaged in youth leadership activities (e.g., school leadership, community service, youth councils). This strategy aimed to recruit informal and formal youth leaders, capturing a wide spectrum of leadership expressions.

2.2.2. Potential Systematic Biases and Limitations

While the sampling method was carefully designed, certain systematic biases may have influenced the sample composition and, consequently, the findings, as follows:

• Gatekeeper bias. Because participant recruitment relied on local authorities and institutions, there is a possibility of gatekeeper bias, whereby only the most visible, cooperative, or institutionally recognized youth leaders were selected. Marginalized or dissenting youth leaders—such as those unaffiliated with formal groups or holding critical perspectives—may have been underrepresented.
• Selection bias due to administrative filtering. Local officials and community representatives may have exercised subjective judgment in identifying participants who reflected positively on their institutions or were perceived as “model youth.” This could lead to social desirability bias, where more politically neutral or compliant youth are overrepresented, potentially excluding those involved in activism or countercultural initiatives.
• Urban–rural imbalance. Although rural and semi-urban areas were included, it is possible that urban youth (especially from district centers) had a disproportionately higher representation, owing to better access to communication channels and more formalized youth leadership structures. This may affect the generalizability of the findings to remote rural youth, who often face different challenges and have fewer leadership development opportunities.
• Religious and ethnic homogeneity within zones. Despite efforts to ensure ethnic and religious diversity across the three provinces, homogeneity within some sub-districts could have skewed the responses. For example, a sub-district with a high concentration of Malay Muslim youth may exhibit leadership patterns specific to that cultural context, which may not generalize across groups.
• Voluntary participation and self-selection bias. Participation in the survey was voluntary, introducing the possibility of self-selection bias. Youth leaders with stronger motivation, confidence, or prior exposure to leadership training may have been more inclined to participate, leading to an overrepresentation of more engaged individuals.

2.2.3. Implications for Generalizability

These potential biases must be acknowledged when interpreting the results. While the sampling strategy was rigorous and methodologically sound, the findings are most generalizable to youth leaders who are institutionally recognized and actively engaged in community or school-based leadership roles. Caution should be exercised when extending the findings to youth in informal or marginalized leadership roles, non-affiliated rural youth, and conflict-affected youth who may distrust formal institutions. Nevertheless, the structured stratification by conflict intensity, coupled with the inclusion of diverse administrative regions and cultural profiles, enhances the study’s external validity within similar multicultural and post-conflict environments in Southeast Asia and beyond. Future studies could use participatory sampling or snowball techniques to include more hidden or underrepresented youth voices.

The participant selection process was carefully designed to capture regional, ethnic, and religious diversity while ensuring methodological rigor through stratified and randomized approaches. However, as with all field-based research in complex social settings, certain systematic biases related to gatekeeping, self-selection, and institutional filtering may have influenced the final composition of the sample. By acknowledging these limitations transparently, the study provides a nuanced foundation for interpreting its findings and understanding their applicability in broader multicultural leadership contexts.

2.3. Research Instruments

The instruments used for data collection were one questionnaire, which was developed from the study of theoretical concepts and related literature to define operational terms and the structure of the variables to be studied. Then, questions were created according to operational terms and the appropriate application of questions from several academics. The questionnaire was presented to 5 experts to analyze the content validity, which resulted in an IOC of 0.60–1.00. The questionnaire was then tested with a non-sample population of 45 people to find the reliability using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient method, which resulted in a reliability of 0.845.

2.4. Data Collection

The researcher collected data in the field with research assistants who had experience in collecting data on many subjects. The data collectors underwent training to understand the methods of collecting data in the field and the details of the questions in the questionnaire to be consistent.

2.5. Data Analysis

Data were analyzed using ready-made computer programs as follows: (1) Analyze general data of the sample group according to the variables studied by analyzing the mean, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis. (2) Analyze the correlation coefficient between observable variables in the model of multicultural leadership components of youth in the three southern border provinces by analyzing the Pearson correlation coefficient to obtain the correlation matrix between the observable variables and check whether the correlation matrix used in the component analysis is significantly different from zero by considering the Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity and the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin Measures of Sampling Adequacy. (3) Bring the correlation matrix with the properties considered to conduct a confirmatory component analysis by estimating parameters by the Maximum Likelihood (ML) method to examine the structural validity by considering the consistency of the model according to the structural equation, according to the theory, with the empirical data. The statistical values for measuring the level of fit were considered, including the Chi-square statistic (p-value), the Chi-square correlation (χ²/df), the comparative fit index (CFI), the general fit index (GFI), the adjusted fit index (AGFI), the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and the root mean square residual (SRMR) [3,70].

3. Results

3.1. Expanded Profile of the Sample Group

In this study, the sample consisted of 640 youth leaders drawn from sub-districts within local administrative organizations across Thailand’s three southern border provinces—Pattani, Yala, and Narathiwat. These provinces are characterized by complex sociocultural dynamics, deeply rooted in historical, religious, and ethnic diversity. To provide a comprehensive understanding of the sample population, participants were further categorized by age, gender, ethnicity, religion, and socioeconomic background, offering critical insights into the sociocultural landscape in which multicultural leadership competencies are cultivated.

• Age distribution. Participants were aged between 15 and 24 years, corresponding to the definition of “youth” as articulated by the United Nations [71] and commonly used in Southeast Asian policy contexts [72]. The majority (approximately 62%) fell within the 18–21 age range, reflecting their engagement in post-secondary education or early professional activities. This age group is particularly significant, as it represents a developmental stage marked by identity formation, value consolidation, and increased civic engagement.
• Gender composition. The sample included a relatively balanced gender distribution, as follows: 52% female, 47% male, and 1% non-binary or chose not to disclose. This balanced representation ensures that leadership dynamics are not skewed by gender bias and allows for meaningful exploration of how leadership traits manifest across different gender identities, particularly within culturally conservative settings.
• Ethnic background. The three southern border provinces are ethnically diverse, and the sample reflected this plurality, as follows: 60% identified as Malay Thai, 30% identified as Thai Buddhist, and 10% belonged to other minority groups, including Chinese Thai, Khmer, or Thai Muslim individuals from outside the Deep South. The presence of multiple ethnic groups within the sample supports the investigation into how multicultural leadership operates in pluralistic and potentially sensitive environments. Ethnic background was a relevant variable in shaping intercultural communication preferences and adaptability to diverse leadership scenarios.
• Religious affiliation. Religious affiliation was reported as follows: 58% Muslim, 38% Buddhist, and 4% Christian or other religions. Given the sociopolitical history of the southern provinces—particularly the identity-based tensions between Buddhist and Muslim communities—this religious breakdown reflects the real-world challenges youth leaders must navigate to foster intercultural cooperation and peacebuilding.
• Socioeconomic background. Participants represented a spectrum of socioeconomic statuses, classified using parental occupation, household income, and access to education, as follows: 45% came from low-income households, typically engaged in agriculture, fisheries, or informal labor sectors; 40% were from lower–middle-income families, often involved in small-scale commerce or public service; 15% identified with middle- or upper-middle-income levels, generally with access to tertiary education and broader social capital. These socioeconomic distinctions are essential for interpreting youth leadership potential, as previous research has established correlations between social capital, access to resources, and leadership development.
• Educational status. Most participants were either currently enrolled in educational institutions or recent graduates, as follows: 68% were attending high school or vocational school, 25% were enrolled in universities or teacher training colleges, and 7% were working youth leaders engaged in community organizations or local administrative bodies. Their educational environments often served as key incubators for leadership skills, particularly in community development, public speaking, and intercultural engagement.

The demographic profile of the sample group underscores the sociocultural richness and complexity of youth leadership in Thailand’s southern border provinces. The diverse mix of age, gender, ethnicity, religion, and socioeconomic background enhances the ecological validity of the study and is a robust foundation for examining multicultural leadership within a real-world context. These demographic variables are descriptive and constitute important contextual moderators that shape how leadership is understood, developed, and enacted among youth in divided or pluralistic societies. A nuanced understanding of these backgrounds is essential for both theoretical interpretation and practical application of the study’s findings.

3.2. Analysis of Descriptive Statistics for Multicultural Leadership Among Youth in the Three Southern Border Provinces

The multicultural leadership of youth in Thailand’s three southern border provinces was analyzed based on six key components, encompassing a total of 32 indicators, as follows: awareness and acceptance of cultural diversity (6 indicators), intercultural communication skills (5 indicators), flexibility and adaptability in multicultural contexts (6 indicators), creative problem solving in a multicultural context (5 indicators), building intercultural collaboration networks (5 indicators), and developing culturally relevant morality and ethics (5 indicators). To explore the distributional characteristics of the factor scores of multicultural leaderships among youth in Thailand’s southern border provinces, key descriptive statistics were computed for each latent construct. These include the mean, standard deviation (SD), skewness, and kurtosis—measures fundamental for assessing central tendency, dispersion, and distributional shape. Such evaluations are essential for validating the assumptions of normality underlying multivariate statistical techniques, particularly Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA).

The mean scores for the latent constructs ranged from 3.57 to 4.36, indicating a generally favorable perception among participants toward the attributes associated with multicultural leadership. These scores suggest that most youth participants agreed with the statements measuring dimensions, such as cultural sensitivity, inclusive communication, and collaborative problem solving. Standard deviations fell between 0.59 and 1.27, reflecting a moderate to high degree of variability. Constructs with lower variability suggest shared understanding or consensus, whereas higher standard deviations may reflect divergent lived experiences or differing levels of exposure to multicultural leadership opportunities. Regarding distributional shape, skewness values ranged from −1.08 to +0.23, indicating that most constructs exhibited negative skewness. This pattern implies a tendency among respondents to rate themselves highly on these leadership dimensions, with relatively fewer low scores. Only one construct showed a mild positive skew (0.23), suggesting a slightly greater concentration of lower scores within that dimension. In terms of kurtosis, the values ranged from −1.82 to −0.22, classifying all constructs as platykurtic. This flatter-than-normal distribution implies that responses were more dispersed around the mean, with fewer extreme scores and a wider spread across the scale. According to guidelines by Hair et al. [68], skewness values between ±1 and kurtosis values between ±2 are indicative of acceptable normality for most parametric analyses. All latent variables in the present study fell well within these thresholds, justifying the use of CFA and other parametric modeling techniques. The observed distributions suggest that the data meet key assumptions for structural modeling and reflect authentic variations in how multicultural leadership is perceived and enacted by youth across this culturally complex region.

An analysis of the correlation matrix comprising 496 inter-item pairs revealed statistically significant positive correlations across all pairs (p < 0.001), with coefficients ranging from 0.108 to 0.686. When categorized by magnitude, 4 item pairs demonstrated high correlations (0.6 < r < 0.8), 143 moderate correlations (0.4 < r < 0.6), 309 low correlations (0.2 < r < 0.4), and 40 very low correlations (0.0 < r < 0.2). To further assess the theoretical coherence of the proposed factor structure, the correlations were grouped into within-factor and between-factor categories. The within-factor correlations, among items designed to measure the same latent dimension, were substantially higher (mean r = 0.55, range = 0.42–0.68), suggesting strong internal consistency. In contrast, between-factor correlations were lower (mean r = 0.22, range = 0.11–0.34), indicating that each construct retains discriminant validity. This pattern supports the multidimensional nature of the multicultural leadership model, aligning with the theoretical framework. Furthermore, Bartlett’s test of sphericity was statistically significant (χ² = 3626.207, p < 0.001), and the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was 0.896, both of which confirm that the correlation matrix is factorable and appropriate for subsequent factor analysis.

3.3. Results of the Confirmatory Factor Analysis of Youth Multicultural Leadership in the Three Southern Border Provinces

The initial confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) model exhibited inadequate fit across multiple indices, prompting a theory-driven specification. Subsequent refinements—guided by both statistical diagnostics and conceptual rationale—resulted in significant improvements in key fit indices (χ²/df, GFI, AGFI, CFI, TLI, RMSEA, and SRMR), indicating stronger alignment between the hypothesized factor structure and observed data.

Modification indices (MIs) were reviewed to identify potential correlated error terms and weakly performing items. However, adjustments were implemented only when supported by theoretical justification, such as semantic similarity or conceptual proximity (e.g., items related to intercultural conflict resolution). Items with standardized factor loadings below 0.50 were critically evaluated for both psychometric adequacy and theoretical relevance. Those deemed ambiguous, redundant, or weakly aligned with their construct were removed to enhance model clarity and parsimony.

Throughout the revision process, the six-factor structure of multicultural leadership remained intact, consistent with frameworks by Banks [1]), Berry [13], and van Linden and Fertman [47]. The number of modifications was deliberately limited to reduce the risk of overfitting. No cross-loadings or item reassignments were allowed, and residual covariances were introduced only were warranted by strong conceptual overlap. This ensured discriminant validity and theoretical coherence.

The final model demonstrated strong fit, with χ²/df < 3, CFI and TLI > 0.95, RMSEA < 0.06, and SRMR < 0.08, supporting convergent and discriminant validity. Specifically, the model yielded χ² = 411.81, df = 370, p = 0.07, and a χ²/df ratio of 1.11, indicating no significant misfit. The GFI (0.96) and AGFI (0.94) exceeded the 0.90 threshold, while SRMR was 0.03, well within acceptable limits.

All standardized factor loadings ranged from 0.51 to 0.94, with statistically significant t-values (all > 1.96, p < 0.01) and small standard errors (0.04–0.09), indicating reliable estimation. While these results suggest strong model-data fit, the precision may reflect sample-specific characteristics. To mitigate overfitting, only essential modifications were made, grounded in theory rather than data-driven optimization.

The final CFA model is, therefore, both parsimonious and theoretically defensible. Nonetheless, future research should employ cross-validation with independent samples to assess the model’s generalizability and external validity, as shown in

Table 1. Consistent index of the hypothesis model and empirical data.

Index	Criteria	After Adjusting Model
		Value	Interpretation
p value	p > 0.05	0.07	Excellent fit
χ2/df	≤3.00	1.11	Excellent fit
CFI	≥0.95	0.99	Excellent fit
GFI	≥0.90	0.96	Excellent fit
AGFI	≥0.90	0.94	Excellent fit
TLI	≥0.95	0.99	Excellent fit
RMSEA	≤0.06	0.01	Excellent fit
SRMR	≤0.08	0.03	Excellent fit

.

The analysis of standardized component weights for each indicator revealed the following results:

Component 1: Awareness and acceptance of cultural diversity. The standardized component weights ranged from 0.74 to 0.96. The indicator with the highest component weight was Indicator 1.2: Learning and respecting the traditions, religions, and cultures of diverse groups (0.96), followed by Indicator 1.3: Reducing prejudice and misunderstanding through education and dialogue (0.95). Other indicators included Indicator 1.1: Expressing acceptance of different opinions and values (0.89), Indicator 1.5: Being open to new perspectives and ideas from different people (0.85), Indicator 1.4: Respecting the rights and dignity of diverse groups (0.81), and Indicator 1.6: Creating an atmosphere of understanding and acceptance in the community (0.74).

Component 2: Intercultural communication skills. The standardized component weights ranged from 0.78 to 0.96. The highest component weight was observed for Indicator 2.5: Utilizing media and technology as a tool to connect cultures (0.96). This was followed by Indicator 2.2: Employing effective speaking skills to reduce misunderstandings in a multicultural society (0.91), Indicator 2.3: Managing conflicts through constructive communication (0.88), Indicator 2.1: Adapting communication strategies to suit cultural contexts (0.79), and Indicator 2.4: Engaging in communication that fosters trust and respect among individuals of different religions (0.78).

Component 3: Flexibility and adaptability in multicultural contexts. The standardized component weights ranged from 0.72 to 0.88. The highest component weight was recorded for Indicator 3.1: Effectively adapting to changing situations (0.88), followed by Indicator 3.2: Openness to new approaches in problem solving (0.87), Indicator 3.5: Demonstrating readiness to adapt to new cultural environments (0.82), Indicator 3.6: Viewing challenges as opportunities for learning and development (0.81), Indicator 3.3: Regulating emotions in challenging situations (0.75), and Indicator 3.4: Collaborating with individuals holding diverse perspectives and beliefs (0.72).

Component 4: Creative problem solving in multicultural contexts. The standardized component weights ranged from 0.85 to 0.94. The indicator with the highest component weight was Indicator 4.2: Applying creative problem-solving strategies to complex issues (0.94), followed by Indicator 4.3: Employing culturally sensitive problem-solving methods (0.90), Indicator 4.1: Integrating perspectives from diverse cultural groups to generate solutions (0.88), Indicator 4.5: Evaluating problem-solving outcomes and refining them for social development (0.87), and Indicator 4.4: Encouraging relevant stakeholders to participate in the problem-solving process (0.85).

Component 5: Building intercultural collaboration networks. The standardized component weights ranged from 0.85 to 0.95. The highest component weight was attributed to Indicator 5.2: Leveraging technology to facilitate intercultural networking (0.95). Other indicators included Indicator 5.1: Building positive relationships with individuals from diverse cultures (0.88), Indicator 5.5: Representing the community in fostering intercultural relations (0.88), Indicator 5.4: Promoting collaboration in community-based projects (0.87), and Indicator 5.3: Creating spaces for intercultural dialogue and shared learning (0.85).

Component 6: Developing culturally relevant morality and ethics. The standardized component weights ranged from 0.77 to 0.95. The indicator with the highest component weight was Indicator 6.4: Inspiring others to uphold ethical and moral principles (0.95), followed by Indicator 6.5: Promoting justice and equality within the community (0.92), Indicator 6.1: Demonstrating honesty and sincerity in collaboration with others (0.90), Indicator 6.2: Making decisions based on moral and ethical considerations (0.86), and Indicator 6.3: Respecting the privacy and dignity of all individuals (0.77).

In the second-order confirmatory factor analysis, Component 1, awareness and acceptance of cultural diversity, exhibited the highest component weight (0.64), indicating its significant role in the overall model. This was followed by Component 3, flexibility and adaptability in multicultural contexts (0.61), and Component 6, developing culturally relevant morality and ethics (0.59). Component 2, intercultural communication skills, ranked next with a component weight of 0.57, followed by Component 5, building intercultural collaboration networks (0.55). The lowest component weight was observed in Component 4, creative problem solving in multicultural contexts, at 0.54. These findings suggest that Component 1, awareness and acceptance of cultural diversity, plays the most critical role in the framework, while creative problem solving in multicultural contexts contributes the least; although, it still maintains relevance within the model. The detailed results of the analysis are presented in

Table 2. Results of the confirmatory factor analysis of the components of multicultural leadership of youth in the three southern border provinces.

Variables	Component Weight		t	R2	Component Score Coefficient
	B	SE
First order factor analysis
Component 1: Awareness and acceptance of cultural diversity
Indicator 1.1	0.89	--	--	0.16	0.03
Indicator 1.2	0.96	0.12	7.69	0.14	0.01
Indicator 1.3	0.95	0.13	7.64	0.14	0.05
Indicator 1.4	0.81	0.13	8.45	0.19	0.06
Indicator 1.5	0.88	0.13	8.22	0.18	0.04
Indicator 1.6	0.74	0.13	8.52	0.20	0.07
Component 2: Intercultural communication skills
Indicator 2.1	0.79	--	--	0.15	0.01
Indicator 2.2	0.91	0.13	6.82	0.13	0.01
Indicator 2.3	0.88	0.12	7.20	0.12	0.02
Indicator 2.4	0.78	0.13	6.05	0.09	0.03
Indicator 2.5	0.96	0.14	7.04	0.14	0.02
Component 3: Flexibility and adaptability in multicultural contexts
Indicator 3.1	0.88	--	--	0.20	0.06
Indicator 3.2	0.87	0.12	7.22	0.15	0.03
Indicator 3.3	0.75	0.13	8.06	0.21	0.04
Indicator 3.4	0.72	0.11	6.40	0.10	0.02
Indicator 3.5	0.82	0.12	6.95	0.13	0.02
Indicator 3.6	0.81	0.12	6.88	0.13	0.01
Component 4: Creative problem solving in multicultural contexts
Indicator 4.1	0.88	--	--	0.16	0.04
Indicator 4.2	0.94	0.15	7.38	0.19	0.03
Indicator 4.3	0.90	0.14	7.02	0.16	0.03
Indicator 4.4	0.85	0.15	7.27	0.18	0.05
Indicator 4.5	0.87	0.14	7.16	0.17	0.04
Component 5: Building Intercultural collaboration Networks
Indicator 5.1	0.88	--	--	0.14	0.01
Indicator 5.2	0.95	0.15	7.06	0.15	0.01
Indicator 5.3	0.85	0.14	6.15	0.10	0.02
Indicator 5.4	0.87	0.14	6.20	0.11	0.03
Indicator 5.5	0.88	0.15	7.46	0.17	0.02
Component 6: Developing culturally relevant morality and ethics
Indicator 6.1	0.90			0.16	0.02
Indicator 6.2	0.86	0.13	6.76	0.12	0.01
Indicator 6.3	0.77	0.12	6.25	0.10	0.01
Indicator 6.4	0.95	0.13	7.15	0.15	0.03
Indicator 6.5	0.92	0.13	7.23	0.15	0.01
Second order factor analysis
Component 1 (Aware)	0.64	0.06	11.02	0.86	--
Component 2 (Commu)	0.57	0.06	9.76	0.81	--
Component 3 (Flexibi)	0.61	0.06	10.45	0.75	--
Component 4 (Solving)	0.54	0.06	9.44	0.72	--
Component 5 (Network)	0.55	0.06	9.32	0.83	--
Component 6 (Ethics)	0.59	0.06	10.09	0.76	--
Chi-square = 411.81	df = 370		p = 0.066
GFI = 0.96	AGFI = 0.94		RMR = 0.047		RMSEA = 0.013

and Figure 2.

4. Discussion

The analysis of the components of multicultural leadership among youth in Thailand’s three southern border provinces identified six key components encompassing 32 indicators. These findings can be discussed as follows:

• Component 1: Awareness and acceptance of cultural diversity. Awareness and acceptance of diversity emerged as a fundamental component of multicultural leadership, as the foundation for fostering understanding and coexistence in multicultural societies. This is particularly relevant to the three southern border provinces of Thailand, which exhibit significant ethnic, religious, linguistic, and cultural diversity. While this diversity presents opportunities for social harmony, it also poses challenges in promoting peace and reconciliation. The findings align with previous research suggesting that recognizing and understanding differences in cultural dimensions, beliefs, and ways of life can mitigate conflict and enhance peaceful coexistence [41,73]. Encouraging youth to embrace and appreciate cultural diversity is essential for reducing bias and prejudice, which contribute to social divisions. This, in turn, plays a pivotal role in fostering long-term peace within diverse communities. Moreover, awareness and acceptance of cultural diversity serve as critical tools for promoting intercultural learning and fostering mutual understanding. Encouraging an open-minded perspective, self-reflection, and the reduction in egocentric biases enables individuals to perceive others as equals. The concept of cultural humility is particularly significant, as it facilitates the development of positive relationships and minimizes barriers arising from cultural differences. A key approach to cultivating multicultural leadership involves participatory learning processes, such as providing youth with opportunities for direct interactions with diverse groups and promoting cultural appreciation. By engaging in these experiences, youth develop inclusive attitudes and recognize the value of cultural diversity [21,74]. Additionally, fostering open-minded attitudes toward cultural differences is crucial for reducing intergroup conflict and ensuring sustainable social harmony. Research indicates that mindfulness-based interventions and the development of cultural sensitivity are effective strategies for reducing biases in intercultural interactions. A non-judgmental mindset further promotes intercultural understanding and conflict resolution, reinforcing the principles of multicultural leadership [9,20]. To enhance awareness and acceptance of diversity, youth should be equipped with the skills necessary to navigate complex cultural landscapes, fostering peace and mutual understanding in regions characterized by sustainable cultural diversity [41,75].
• Component 2: Intercultural communication skills. Cross-cultural communication skills constitute a crucial component of multicultural leadership, as they facilitate mutual understanding and help mitigate misunderstandings in culturally diverse societies. In the context of Thailand’s three southern border provinces, where ethnic, linguistic, and religious diversity is prominent, the development of effective cross-cultural communication skills can foster harmonious relationships, reduce social tensions, and promote intercultural understanding. Theoretical perspectives emphasize the importance of creating inclusive spaces for dialogue, adaptation, and relationship building in culturally diverse settings. Transparent communication and mutual understanding are fundamental pillars for social cohesion, as effective communication can be a powerful tool for resolving conflicts, fostering trust, and strengthening intergroup relationships [52]. In multicultural societies, trust and mutual respect are critical in interpersonal communication, particularly in relationships between youth from diverse cultural backgrounds [51,63]. Adapting communication strategies to align with cultural norms and expectations can significantly reduce tensions and foster positive interactions. Furthermore, electronic and interpersonal communication skills are instrumental in cultivating a deeper understanding of cultural diversity [22,42]. Leaders in multicultural environments must develop the ability to adapt their communication styles to engage effectively across cultural boundaries. Strategies such as organizing intercultural activities, providing platforms for youth from different cultural backgrounds to collaborate, and encouraging critical reflection on cultural beliefs and values can enhance intercultural competencies among young leaders [48,50].
• Component 3: Flexibility and adaptability in multicultural contexts. Flexibility and adaptability are essential for youth navigating multicultural environments, particularly in the three southern border provinces of Thailand, where cultural and religious diversity is deeply embedded in social structures. The ability to adapt effectively enables young individuals to address challenges creatively, manage social changes, and coexist harmoniously within diverse communities. Research suggests that youth must be cognitively flexible when processing new information and adjusting to culturally diverse contexts, allowing for peaceful cohabitation within society. Adaptability involves the capacity to modify behaviors and thought processes in response to evolving circumstances, employing critical reasoning and positive analytical skills to navigate intercultural interactions. These capabilities equip youth with the resilience to overcome challenges, adjust to unfamiliar environments, and engage meaningfully in multicultural settings [23,53]. Cultural adaptation plays a pivotal role in fostering social harmony within diverse societies. Youth should be encouraged to develop an appreciation for cultural and religious diversity, embracing differences in traditions, customs, and ways of life. By actively engaging in cultural exchange and dialogue, young individuals can cultivate sustainable mental and social balance in diverse social settings [13,54]. Leaders who demonstrate adaptive capabilities can motivate and inspire others to embrace social change and intercultural coexistence. Additionally, youth with adaptability skills can play a vital role in facilitating community resilience, particularly in challenging or unpredictable situations, such as community conflicts or crisis management [14,15,76]. In the 21st century, resilience and adaptability have become critical competencies, enabling youth to navigate rapid societal transformations effectively. These skills are indispensable in coping with crises and recovering from adversities, ultimately fostering self-confidence and leadership capacity in dynamic and uncertain environments [77].
• Component 4: Creative problem solving in multicultural contexts. Creative problem solving in multicultural contexts is a critical skill that enhances cooperation, mitigates conflict, and fosters trust in culturally diverse regions, such as Thailand’s three southern border provinces. Given the ethnic, religious, and cultural diversity in this area, effective problem solving requires in-depth analysis, creative thinking, and structured processes that ensure the equal participation of all stakeholders. In a multicultural context, problem solving should prioritize group dynamics and social relationships, emphasizing collective well-being over individual interests. Individuals should perceive themselves as integral members of a community, ensuring that decision-making processes consider the broader impact on the group while promoting unity and social harmony. Implementing group-based interactions with continuous and sustainable communication can help reduce misunderstandings, increase cooperation, and foster constructive intergroup relationships [11,17]. Constructive conflict resolution is fundamental for trust building and cooperation in diverse communities. An inclusive negotiation process—where all parties have an equal opportunity to express their opinions—helps reduce tensions and facilitates open dialogue. Collaborative problem solving through idea exchange, discussion, and reflection is crucial in multicultural settings [24,55]. Adopting negotiation strategies that prioritize mutual benefits enhances the sense of acceptance and satisfaction among stakeholders, thereby minimizing conflict and fostering long-term peace. Furthermore, critical thinking skills, teamwork, and emotional regulation in culturally diverse environments are a foundational element for effective collaboration and conflict resolution. These skills enable individuals to navigate cultural differences with empathy and diplomacy, ensuring more effective problem-solving outcomes [64,78].
• Component 5: Building intercultural collaboration networks. Building intercultural networks is fundamental to fostering positive relationships, reducing conflict, and cultivating a society based on mutual trust. This is particularly crucial in Thailand’s three southern border provinces, where ethnic, religious, and cultural diversity necessitates proactive efforts to strengthen social cohesion. When youth leaders develop the ability to collaborate with individuals from diverse backgrounds, they contribute to peacebuilding, reduce misunderstandings, and create strong, cooperative relationships across communities. Encouraging youth leaders to engage with civil society organizations and other relevant stakeholders is instrumental in fostering mutual trust and sustainable regional development. Research suggests that promoting participation in diverse social activities enhances trust building and mitigates prejudices between cultural groups, which is essential for effective, creative, and self-sustaining community networks [12,56]. Youth leaders who establish strong connections with key societal actors—such as community leaders, religious organizations, and civil society groups—gain increased support for initiatives that advance interfaith understanding and regional peace [56,57]. Developing networking skills is essential for leading youth-driven initiatives, particularly those focused on sustainable development and peacebuilding. Additionally, fostering intercultural relationships within communities requires promoting understanding and acceptance of cultural and religious diversity. Youth leaders should actively facilitate projects that encourage dialogue, collaboration, and knowledge sharing across cultural boundaries [58,79]. To ensure the sustainability of cross-cultural collaboration, youth leaders should establish inclusive networks that integrate all relevant sectors, linking youth groups, local communities, government organizations, and other key stakeholders. Leadership training programs should be designed to equip youth with the necessary skills to drive these networks effectively. Moreover, incorporating cultural and religious principles as foundational elements in network development can foster greater awareness, mutual understanding, and long-term peace in multicultural societies [15,58].
• Component 6: Developing culturally relevant morality and ethics. The development of morality and ethics, closely linked to cultural values, is a fundamental factor in fostering a peaceful and sustainable society in the three southern border provinces of Thailand. Given the region’s religious and ethnic diversity, youth leaders should be instilled with moral principles derived from religious teachings and local traditions to promote social harmony and mitigate conflicts. Cross-cultural learning fosters an understanding of and respect for differences, enabling peaceful coexistence. Therefore, ethical leadership development is essential, enabling youth to serve as role models and guide their communities in a constructive direction. Encouraging participation in public welfare activities and volunteerism helps reduce inappropriate behaviors, while fostering a sense of social responsibility. The application of the sufficiency economy philosophy further enables youth to cultivate a balanced lifestyle, develop self-reliance, and recognize the broader societal implications of their actions. This aligns with the notion that morality forms the foundation of ethical behavior, particularly in societies facing cultural diversity and social challenges. When youth internalize moral values, such as honesty, compassion, and respect for differences, they contribute to conflict reduction and foster mutual understanding among ethnic and religious groups [25]. Moral development is an intellectual process that enables individuals to apply reason in ethical decision making—an essential skill for youth leaders. Rational consideration of the societal impact of their actions empowers youth leaders to adopt constructive approaches rather than responding with violence or prejudice. Additionally, moral education should be integrated into the sufficiency economy philosophy, which is a guiding principle for balancing material and spiritual well-being in Thai society [59,79]. Compassion and empathy are central to promoting morality in society. These values can be applied in multicultural contexts by encouraging youth to engage in altruistic activities, such as volunteering, community service, and peace advocacy. Such engagements foster a supportive society and reduce conflicts stemming from cultural misunderstandings [60,61]. Establishing an ethical identity is a crucial determinant in motivating individuals to choose virtuous actions. Encouraging youth leaders to recognize their societal roles and responsibilities—such as participating in peace-promoting activities, collaborating with religious organizations, and producing media content that challenges cultural biases—contributes to the development of a sustainable ethical identity [68]. Furthermore, youth leaders should embody humility and prioritize collective well-being over personal interests. By acting as cultural mediators and organizing activities that foster intergroup understanding, they can bridge cultural divides and promote long-term social cohesion [46].

In addition, the results of this research also reflect theoretical implications and contributions to youth leadership in multicultural contexts. The findings of this study offer both empirical validation and theoretical refinement of existing models of youth leadership, particularly within the nuanced context of Thailand’s three southern border provinces—a region marked by complex interethnic, interreligious, and interlinguistic dynamics. By confirming six core components of multicultural leadership among youth—namely, awareness and acceptance of cultural diversity; intercultural communication skills; flexibility and adaptability; creative problem solving; intercultural collaboration networks; and culturally relevant morality and ethics—this research contributes meaningfully to the evolving theoretical discourse on youth leadership in diverse societies. These findings can be discussed as follows:

• Alignment with and extension of multicultural leadership theories. The study’s findings are well-aligned with foundational models of multicultural leadership, such as Banks’ theory of multicultural education [1] and Berry’s acculturation framework [13]. Banks emphasizes the cultivation of multicultural competencies through education to prepare individuals for democratic citizenship in diverse societies. In parallel, Berry’s model identifies integration—marked by high cultural maintenance and high participation in the host society—as the most adaptive acculturation strategy. The empirical dominance of “awareness and acceptance of diversity” in the factor structure strongly supports these theoretical positions, suggesting that the development of youth leadership must begin with cultivating open-mindedness and cognitive empathy [1,13]. However, this study extends these theories by empirically demonstrating that ethical grounding—represented by “developing culturally relevant morality and ethics”—plays an equally foundational role in youth leadership. While moral development has been historically treated as peripheral in some multicultural frameworks, the present study’s results resonate with MacIntyre’s [25] virtue ethics and Noddings’ [61] ethics of care, both of which argue that moral character and empathy are central to responsible leadership.
• Convergence with youth leadership development theories. The empirical structure derived from this study shares conceptual similarities with transformational leadership theory [15], particularly regarding the emphasis on adaptability, vision, and ethics. Components such as flexibility and adaptability in multicultural contexts and creative problem solving reflect the transformational traits of intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration. Moreover, servant leadership theory, especially as articulated by Greenleaf [46] and extended by Eva et al. [33], is echoed in the study’s emphasis on building networks and promoting moral leadership. Notably, the integration of social capital theory [12] into the leadership model—via the “intercultural collaboration networks” component—provides a critical link between leadership development and community-level cohesion. This suggests a shift from hierarchical leadership models toward relational and networked forms of influence, consistent with Uhl-Bien’s complexity leadership theory [14].
• Divergence from traditional youth leadership models. Traditional youth leadership theories have often prioritized traits, such as assertiveness, goal orientation, and authority assertion [44]. These models, while relevant in more homogeneous or organizational contexts, are increasingly criticized for their lack of cultural nuance. The present study diverges from these models by foregrounding intercultural competence, adaptability, and ethical sensitivity—competencies often neglected in classical frameworks. This divergence suggests that traditional paradigms of youth leadership may be inadequate in culturally complex and conflict-sensitive settings. Instead, the study supports a contextualist approach to leadership, which emphasizes that effective leadership must be culturally embedded, context-responsive, and morally attuned [2,34].
• Relevance to peacebuilding and social cohesion theories. The research also intersects meaningfully with peacebuilding frameworks, particularly Lederach’s [24] moral imagination theory, which posits that leaders must develop the capacity to “wage peace” through empathy, creativity, and ethical commitment. The empirical support for components, such as creative problem solving and culturally grounded ethics, positions youth leaders as administrative figures and as agents of social transformation, capable of mending social fractures and fostering inclusive coexistence. Moreover, the study’s findings align with Galtung’s [80] distinction between “positive peace” and “negative peace,” with multicultural leadership functioning as a tool for cultivating the former through grassroots engagement and inclusive dialogue.
• Implications for theorizing youth leadership in post-conflict societies. In post-conflict or ethno-religiously fragmented contexts such as southern Thailand, youth leadership must be reconceptualized beyond the scope of organizational efficiency or individual charisma. The current study suggests a developmental–communitarian framework, wherein leadership is simultaneously a personal competency and a collective resource. This reconceptualization mirrors the constructivist peace education perspective [81], which argues that leadership should be nurtured through dialogic, participatory, and experiential learning processes that promote empathy and social justice.

In summary, this study reinforces, extends, and challenges prevailing theories of youth and multicultural leadership. It underscores the critical need for contextualization, particularly in culturally plural, historically contested regions. While it confirms the enduring relevance of intercultural competence, adaptability, and ethical integrity, it also calls for a paradigm shift in youth leadership development—one that foregrounds relational ethics, community engagement, and intercultural fluency as central leadership pillars. The findings contribute to the theoretical landscape and offer a framework for policy and practice in leadership development, curriculum design, and youth empowerment programs in multicultural and post-conflict settings.

5. Conclusions

This research highlights six key components of multicultural leadership among youth in the three southern border provinces, as follows: (1) awareness and acceptance of cultural diversity, which fosters understanding, reduces prejudice, and promotes harmonious coexistence; (2) intercultural communication skills, which minimize misunderstandings across ethnic, religious, and linguistic groups, thereby enhancing trust and reducing conflict; (3) flexibility and adaptability in multicultural contexts, which equip youth with problem-solving abilities and the capacity to embrace diverse perspectives in a rapidly changing society; (4) creative problem solving in a multicultural context, which prioritizes inclusive participation, negotiation, and cooperation over confrontation, thereby alleviating community tensions; (5) building intercultural collaboration networks, which facilitate collaboration among civil society organizations, community leaders, and religious institutions, leading to sustainable development; and (6) developing culturally relevant morality and ethics, which cultivate youth leaders who are community-conscious, honest, compassionate, and respectful of diversity. The findings of this research offer valuable insights for policy formulation and implementation by government agencies, educational institutions, community organizations, and youth development initiatives. Policies should focus on promoting multicultural education by integrating curricula that foster awareness of ethnic, religious, and linguistic diversity, supporting cultural exchange programs that enhance intergroup understanding and developing leadership and cross-cultural communication training. Additionally, policies should support youth leadership by funding training programs, establishing youth leadership development centers, and facilitating interfaith and intercultural cooperation projects. Strengthening collaboration between government, private sector, and civil society actors is also crucial for organizing activities that promote cultural understanding, counter prejudice, and provide platforms for youth participation. Implementing these recommendations will contribute to a more inclusive, peaceful, and sustainable multicultural society.