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Article

An Exploratory Study: The Impact of the IT Entrepreneurship Training Program on Career Development Among Ethnic Minorities in Hong Kong

by
Shiying Fang
and
Chi Hung Leung
*
Department of Special Education & Counselling, The Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Societies 2025, 15(3), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/soc15030048
Submission received: 14 November 2024 / Revised: 12 February 2025 / Accepted: 18 February 2025 / Published: 20 February 2025
Versions Notes

Abstract

Hong Kong has a large population of people from ethnic minorities (EM), many of whom are unemployed or underemployed. The focus of the study was to gain insight into the internal and external challenges faced by EM in Hong Kong and examine the impact of the IT entrepreneurship training program on career development among EM in Hong Kong. The semi-structured interview was used to elicit the participants’ perspectives on challenges in career development in Hong Kong. Questionnaires measured program and non-program participants’ self-efficacy, outcome expectation, and career aspiration levels. The results showed that low levels of sociocultural adaptation, racial inequality, and lack of available resources may constitute challenges for EM in achieving career development in Hong Kong. In addition, program participants particularly reported higher levels of career aspiration. Implications for promoting Hong Kong EM’s career development and improving training programs were discussed.

1. Introduction

People who belong to ethnic minorities (EM) in Hong Kong, particularly those of South Asians and Southeast Asians, are often engaged in low-skilled and low-paying jobs due in part to their isolation from the larger Hong Kong community [1]. In 2021, the Hong Kong Census and Statistics Department reported that a total of 619,568 EM constituting 8.4% of the whole population were living in Hong Kong. About 80% of EM in Hong Kong were Asians (other than Chinese), and most were of Southeast Asian descent such as Filipinos and Indonesians, constituting 32.5% and 22.9% of the population of ethnic minorities, respectively. This was followed by 16.5% South Asians and 9.9% Whites [2]. Chinese society promotes the construction of social harmony, including in Hong Kong [3]. Arat and Kerelian [4] proposed the conceptual framework: a socially inclusive Hong Kong consists of social cohesion and social justice (inclusive of social harmony). They underlined that equality and equity via social cohesion among majority and minority populations help Hong Kong get closer to social inclusion. As Young [5] advocated, paying attention to equal treatment in everyday relational interactions is important. The long-term marginalization of EM in the community, school, and job market is not conducive to achieving equity, diversity, and inclusion in Hong Kong.
In December 2017, the National Development and Reform Commission and the Hong Kong government signed the arrangement regarding Hong Kong’s full participation in the Belt and Road Initiative [6]. Since then, the Hong Kong government has been actively seeking collaboration opportunities with One Belt One Road countries such as Thailand, the Philippines, Indonesia, India, Pakistan, and Nepal, the home countries of most EM in Hong Kong. Hong Kong is an important platform for capital formulation, wealth management, and commercial trade in the Belt and Road Initiative [7]. If people from these countries in Hong Kong could be trained in the skills required to run their own businesses, these businesses may not only strengthen Hong Kong’s economy but also create a bridge of business partnerships between Hong Kong and immigrants’ home countries. However, 2011 census results showed that the median monthly income level among EM (Filipinos, Indonesians, Pakistanis, Nepalese, and Thai) was well below the average [8]. Moreover, over 25,000 ethnic minorities lived in subdivided units [9], with substandard living conditions and higher safety risks [10]. Language remains a significant barrier that hinders the educational advancement and career development of EM in Hong Kong [11], despite the government’s substantial efforts and resources aimed at improving their written and spoken Chinese skills. In Hong Kong, written and spoken Chinese differ significantly. The spoken language is primarily Cantonese, which has distinct tonal variations and lacks a standardized romanization system [12]. While the Hong Kong government provided the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) curriculum in Chinese Language for EM students, it covers language skills only up to primary 3 level [13]. As a result, EM may struggle to master both spoken Cantonese and written Chinese. With the rapid development of the Internet, online freelancing could be regarded as a stepping stone to entrepreneurship due to its flexibility, few spoken communication needs, and a low standard for start-up capital.
It is imperative to identify the internal and external challenges and build strategies to support EM in achieving career development in Hong Kong. Previous research has particularly focused on school education and underlined the issue of identity construction and cultural adaptation for EM students in Hong Kong [14,15,16]. However, there was still a large group of EM people who did not receive any Hong Kong education and had no connections with Hong Kong before they first came to Hong Kong as complete migrant workers. A deep understanding of the challenges faced by EM among all age groups in Hong Kong would direct schools, enterprises, and the government to create relevant policies and support EM in Hong Kong to achieve positive career outcomes. In addition, although some scholars around the world have paid attention to the issue of career development in the field of education training and developed various training programs for a range of populations [17,18,19], there were only limited training programs developed to improve EM’s career development in Hong Kong. Further, no training program focused on IT entrepreneurship for Hong Kong EM existed.

1.1. Ethnic Minority Entrepreneurship in Hong Kong

Migrant entrepreneurs play a critical role in enhancing economic efficiency by stimulating innovation and improving economic integration [20]. Sinkovics and Reuber [21] summarized “migrant entrepreneur” into different types: migrant entrepreneur, immigrant entrepreneur, refugee entrepreneur, returnee entrepreneur, ethnic entrepreneur, diaspora entrepreneur, and transnational entrepreneur based on different standards. Ethnic entrepreneurs refer to those people who belong to ethnic minorities and establish businesses in the host country. Limited human capital (e.g., language and experience) and huge cultural differences as the unfavorable conditions push EM to start their own businesses [22]. As Gaweł et al. [20] described, ethnic entrepreneurship is usually characterized by dependent, low-value, and hermetic. While most migrant entrepreneurs in Hong Kong are still of Chinese ethnic origin, the percentage of Chinese migrant entrepreneurs has decreased from 94.07% in 2001 to 90.96% in 2016. At the same time, there is a steady increase in South Asian and White entrepreneurs [23]. One of the requirements of migrant entrepreneurship to Hong Kong must invest a minimum of HKD 30 million in permissible investment assets, including investing a minimum of HKD 27 million in permissible financial assets and non-residential real estate, and placing HKD 3 million into a New Capital Investment Entrant Scheme (CIES) Investment Portfolio [24]. However, the ethnic minorities, called EM locals, in this study were all born and lived in Hong Kong. In Hong Kong, although EM locals face great challenges in finding jobs and starting businesses, some of them do establish small businesses, such as opening restaurants or grocery stores selling products from their home country to members of their own ethnic group. Other popular business choices include air ticket and hotel booking agencies and money transfer services. Most of the businesses operated by South Asians are concentrated in Chung King Mansion in Tsim Sha Tsui, an area that is largely self-sufficient and isolated from other communities. While these businesses strengthen immigrant communities, it is also possible to isolate EM people from the rest of Hong Kong, limiting the chance for business expansion [25].
Starting a traditional business requires a considerable amount of start-up capital for the purchase of stock and to pay other expenses such as rent and electricity. This upfront investment can only be afforded by the few EM residents who are comparatively wealthy with bringing the money from home or successful in previous jobs. Other potential business owners may lack these financial resources, as well as adequate education and the necessary skills to strike out on their own. Therefore, EM entrepreneurs tend to engage in business activities at the low end and concentrate in impoverished areas of the city plagued with poverty and crime [26]. It has been shown that EM around the world have started to seek new opportunities to develop businesses. For example, Arrighetti et al. [27] introduced a new type of firm in Italy called multicultural migrant firms featuring multicultural personnel that helps to improve the social integration of immigrants and facilitate economic innovation. Verver et al. [28] indicated that most studies focused on EM entrepreneurship in the West and discussed two cases (the Mennonites in Belize and the Chinese in Cambodia) outside the West. The authors found the Mennonites and Chinese immigrants utilized their specific entrepreneurial resources to create wealth rather than compete with existing populations. Moreover, their business activities were not always confined to ethnic community boundaries; instead, they showed internal community differentiation and the intersection of ethnic and mainstream economies. Since the early 20th century, with the growing popularity of intelligent mobile phones and the advancement of internet infrastructure, information technology (IT) entrepreneurship has become more popular among the younger generation. Shan et al. [29] suggested that there is a high correlation between technological entrepreneurship and economic growth. Compared with a traditional enterprise, a limited amount of capital is needed to start an IT company because the founder could take all the business functions at the early stage [30]. Moreover, the Internet provides access to invaluable additional information, opportunities, and connections to the larger Hong Kong and world communities. A training program that aims to leverage the EM groups’ strengths in IT may not only foster connections to their home countries but also be a means to overcome language barriers in their careers.

1.2. Online Freelancing as a Stepping Stone to Entrepreneurship

While opportunities for entrepreneurship in developing countries continue to rise, many EM in Hong Kong face difficulties in breaking into the market. Some EM may not know about local opportunities or not have the resources or skills to start their own businesses. However, opportunities for online freelancing are increasing exponentially across the globe [31], and it can potentially act as a stepping stone to entrepreneurial careers. In developed countries such as the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Australia, many companies are already hiring online freelancers from developing countries for various types of work where the output can be delivered electronically [32]. These jobs include but are not limited to web and mobile programming, graphic design, writing and translation, administrative and customer support, and accounting and marketing. The main reason for employers from developed countries outsourcing these tasks to overseas workers is labor arbitrage [33]. With the same costs, companies can hire an even greater number of qualified staff from these developing countries.
Freelancing has already become a popular career option for people across South Asia [31]. For example, there are more than 870,000 freelance workers from the region hired on the online freelancing platform upwork.com, with over 114,000 of them (13% of the freelancers) with at least 1 h billed or USD 1 earned. Moreover, 8% and 3% of them had at least 100 and 1000 h billed, respectively. Freelancers can also find a variety of positions depending on their skill sets. For those who choose to do online freelancing work, their main motivations are personal control and flexibility of working conditions; the possibility to set one’s own schedule, select jobs, and negotiate rates; being able to work from home; and supplementing one’s income [34]. However, there are still some problems regarding online freelancing work, including insecurity about the pay, lack of social protection, isolation, and stress, the blurring of lines between the spheres of work and private life, high competition, and the short-term nature of employment [35]. Workers who seek online freelancing jobs must be prepared for these challenges.

1.3. The Present Study

In summary, it is important to pay attention to the challenges for EM’s career development and create effective strategies to support EM to achieve positive career outcomes. The objectives of the study were the following:
  • Explore internal and external challenges in career development among EM in Hong Kong through the lens of SCCT;
  • Examine the impact of the IT Entrepreneurship training program on career development among EM in Hong Kong.

2. Method

2.1. Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) and a Training Program

The social cognitive career theory (SCCT) [36] has long been used to explain career interests, goals, and development among a range of populations and fields [37,38,39,40,41,42]. The SCCT builds upon Bandura’s [43] social cognitive theory and underlines the interaction between attributes of personal factors, environmental factors, and behavior. It involves two main “person” variables, namely self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations. Specifically, self-efficacy refers to people’s beliefs that they can complete the given tasks successfully; outcome expectations are the individuals’ understanding of the consequences of their specific behaviors. Scholars around the world have applied the SCCT in education training and confirmed its significance in promoting career development. For instance, Gestiada et al. [17] developed a tool based on SCCT-related factors such as self-efficacy to help students make appropriate career choices, and the tool received high evaluation from the respondents. King et al. [19] conducted a randomized controlled trial and reported the participants who joined the training group, which included the delivery of knowledge and discussion forum about SCCT-based exercises such as acknowledging and reflecting on previous experience along with the review and instruction from investigators, improved more on self-efficacy compared with the participants in the group without the elements of discussion forum and investigator instruction. Similarly, Jordan et al. [18] explored the impact of a training program on the graduates’ long-term career development outcomes in a qualitative study and found the graduates benefited from a core knowledge framework and mentored experiential learning environment. The participants’ responses about the values of the program included specific themes aligned with SCCT such as successful completion of tasks and formulation of professional goals. As Bakken et al. [44] suggested, personal success experiences, exposure to successful role models, and positive and collaborative learning environments helped to strengthen self-efficacy beliefs and form positive outcome expectations.
We developed a training program based on the SCCT to nurture entrepreneurism in EM communities in Hong Kong. As a stepping stone to setting up their own businesses, the EM participants were taught to be online freelancers in the field of information technology. Specifically, the participants in the program received 6 h of training in workshops on freelancing, entrepreneurship, and business development skills, and 162 h of training classes in optional modules on data science skills such as web scraping, social media and social media marketing, natural language processing, R programming, and mobile app development. A batch of excellent entrepreneurs and technical talents were employed as tutors in workshops and classes. Some overarching themes in the workshops included how to develop a business model, create personal websites, obtain government information about starting a business, become involved in local business events, and anticipate risks associated with starting a business. The training program lasted 4 months (from November 2020 to March 2021), and all the sessions were conducted online on the night of weekdays or weekends due to the constrictions of COVID-19. The medium of instruction was English (supplemented by Cantonese/Mandarin if necessary). The participants were encouraged to form study groups to finish assignments and exchange useful information during the training period. Apart from the delivery of solid theoretical knowledge and technical skills, experienced experts in entrepreneurship and vocational education worked as mentors to provide suggestions on the participants’ entrepreneurial plans and guide the participants to find entrepreneurial support information and freelance jobs on online platforms. The program’s core values for career development included the delivery of solid theoretical knowledge and technical skills and a mentored collaborative learning environment.

2.2. Participants and Procedures

Owing to the pandemic, various online tools and platforms were used in the process of participant recruitment. We created a website in English and Chinese for people to access our program information. Social media platforms such as Facebook and Instagram were used to engage potential applicants as well as enrolled participants, aiming to learn and understand more about their career interests and goals. We also promoted the program through our close working relationships with ethnic minority agencies that provided services to ethnic minorities (e.g., Health in Action, Zubin Foundation, and Hong Kong Unison) and local tertiary and post-secondary institutions (i.e., Vocational Training Council—VTC and self-funded post-secondary institutions). The selection criteria were (a) aged 19 or older, (b) living in Hong Kong with resident status, (c) from EM (South Asian and Southeast Asian), and (d) interests in IT, entrepreneurship, or freelancing. Forty-five participants were invited to attend semi-structured interviews online before the training program. At the end of the training program, 39 program participants and 161 non-program participants were invited to complete the questionnaires including (a) Career Decision Self-Efficacy Scale Short Form, (b) Outcome Expectation Scale, and (c) Career Aspiration Scale-Revised. Upon the completion of the data collection, each participant received a HKD 50 supermarket coupon to express our gratitude for their participation. This study was reviewed and approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of the Education University of Hong Kong. The participant-signed consent forms were obtained before data collection. They were told that they had the right to withdraw from the study at any time without any negative consequences. The demographic information of all the participants is shown in Table 1 and Table 2.

3. Measures

3.1. Semi-Structured Interview

Semi-structured interviews were conducted through ZOOM before starting the training program. We developed the interview script based on the core factors in SCCT including personal factors such as self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations and environmental factors. A pilot test was conducted to collect feedback and improve the clarity of the script. The interviews were approximately 30 to 45 min in length and were recorded with the consent of the participants. External consultants who were proficient in multiple languages such as English, Nepali, and Urdu and were also experienced academics conducted the interviews.

3.2. Questionnaires

The Career Decision Self-Efficacy Scale-Short Form (CDSE-SF) [45] contains 25 items and is used to evaluate self-efficacy and confidence in making decisions related to career development and the ability to complete tasks at work. Each item is rated using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = no confidence at all to 5 = complete confidence). Sample items include “Choose a career that will fit your preferred lifestyle” and “Make a career decision and then not worry about whether it was right or wrong”. A total score is formed by summing all item ratings. Higher scores indicate higher confidence in one’s career. The CDSE-SF has demonstrated good reliability and validity in previous research [46,47]. The Cronbach’s alpha of the scale in this study was 0.97.
The Outcome Expectation Scale (OES) [48] is a 10-item scale that can be used to measure individual beliefs about the predicted outcome of pursuing a goal. In this study, we focused on the goal of pursuing a major in the field of IT entrepreneurship. Participants are asked to respond to each item using an 11-point Likert scale (0 = will never occur to 10 = will always occur). Sample items include “…I will feel more powerful” and “…I will be able to interview for good jobs”. A total score is formed by summing all item ratings. The OES has demonstrated good reliability and validity in previous research [49,50]. The Cronbach’s alpha of the scale in this study was 0.94.
The Career Aspiration Scale-Revised (CAS-R) [51] can be used to evaluate the respondent’s career aspirations for their career. Rojewski [52] suggested that career aspiration refers to an individual’s expressed career-related goals or choices. The 24 items on the scale were distributed across three subscales: Leadership, Achievement, and Education. Participants rate how much each item applies to them using a 5-point Likert scale (0 = not at all true of me to 4 = very true of me). Sample items include “I want my work to have a lasting impact on my field” and “I plan to rise to a top leadership position in my organization or business”. A total score is formed by summing all item ratings. Higher scores indicate higher aspirations in each domain (i.e., achievement, leadership, education). The CAS has demonstrated good reliability and validity in previous research [53,54]. The Cronbach’s alpha of the scale in this study was 0.93.

4. Analysis and Results

Data analysis started with the interviews being transcribed verbatim to explore the internal and external challenges for Hong Kong EM to career development. All the participants’ names were replaced by pseudonyms to maintain privacy. Repeated listening and member checking were conducted to improve the accuracy of the transcript. An experienced research assistant analyzed the data using the thematic analysis approach [55]. Data were examined line by line and sentence by sentence to identify the recurring concepts and then were coded to further generate themes. It was considered to achieve saturation when no new concepts were emerging. To examine the impact of the training program on Hong Kong EM’s career development, the independent samples t-test at the end of the program was conducted to compare the performance of program participants and non-program participants in self-efficacy, outcome expectation, and career aspiration.

4.1. The Internal and External Challenges for Hong Kong EM to Career Development

Three major challenges were identified to hinder Hong Kong EM from career development, namely, (1) low levels of sociocultural adaptation; (2) racial inequality; and (3) lack of available resources

4.1.1. Low Levels of Sociocultural Adaptation

We found that the ability of sociocultural adaptation seemed to influence Hong Kong EM’s career development. The difference in cultural tradition and language between Hong Kong and their hometown may cause difficulties in promoting career development. The conflict between heritage culture and local culture may put EM in a dilemma and obstruct them from integrating into Hong Kong’s local society. As one participant remarked:
“Sometimes I prefer not to say any words in the office, it does not mean that I am angry or sad, it just makes me feel I am not the one in the group, particularly when lots of Chinese colleagues are talking actively”.
The EM who showed poor adaptation to Hong Kong traditional cultures and spoke worse Cantonese tended to be less confident in making goals and developing a career in Hong Kong.

4.1.2. Racial Inequality

Racial inequality also seemed to emerge as an issue for Hong Kong EM to achieve career development. Most EM in Hong Kong have different appearance features compared to the local people, and this may prevent them from being employed sometimes. They tend to withdraw or imagine a negative result at first even when they are well-prepared for a job interview. Meanwhile, discrimination may also be reflected in the limited performance and promotion opportunities in the workplace. One participant described it like this:
“I know it is hard for a foreigner to get a promotion in the company I’m working for… even though I take on more work than others, they always get more opportunities than me”.
The EM who experienced more inequality tended to possess less positive outcome expectations for career development in Hong Kong.

4.1.3. Lack of Available Resources

Apart from the internal personal factors, external environmental factors such as financial and emotional support also seemed to work as valuable resources in supporting EM to develop a career in Hong Kong. Specifically, although the Hong Kong government has offered many benefits such as financial assistance for retraining and entrepreneurship to people who want to improve their career skills and achieve career development, some still only accept applications from permanent residents. Meanwhile, limited knowledge and language skills may cause constraints to access external resources. Some participants described it like this:
“I do not know how to find a sponsorship”.
“The application system is too complicated for me to understand”.
In addition, most Hong Kong EM live away from home and come to Hong Kong to study or work alone, they tend to need more emotional support than the EM who live with families. As one participant remarked:
“The improvement in communication technology does make it easier to connect with my family, but the power of support in real life cannot be replaced…a real, warm hug is more valuable than anything when I am frustrated”.
The EM with more available resources were more likely to overcome difficulties and achieve better career outcomes.

4.2. The Impact of the Training Program on Hong Kong EM’s Career Development

As shown in Table 3, the results showed that the program participants reported higher scores in self-efficacy, outcome expectation, and particularly in career aspiration (p < 0.01) than non-program participants.

5. Discussion

We identified several themes describing how Hong Kong EM’s career development was challenged through the lens of SCCT. First, sociocultural adaptation is critical for people living far away from their home countries, including the EM group in Hong Kong. As Ward et al. [56] suggested, sociocultural adaptation comprises behavioral and cognitive components of cultural learning and determines the effectiveness of one’s performance in a new milieu. Previous studies have indicated the correlation between acculturation to the local life and the level of satisfaction with life and mental disorders [57,58,59,60]. The hurdles including cultural traditions and languages faced by the EM may couple with negative mental symptoms and further hamper them from living joyfully or developing careers in Hong Kong. Titzmann and Jugert [61] underlined self-efficacy as a critical personal resource that could be predicted by the developmental and acculturative processes. They compared the performance of newcomers and experienced immigrants in Germany and found that newcomers tended to have lower levels and more pronounced increases in self-efficacy than experienced immigrants. It is normal to experience psychological distress when someone comes to a new environment at first, but those who later choose to integrate tend to be more successful than those who choose to separate [62]. Therefore, concerning the EM in Hong Kong, they might need to know how to build a positive mindset to deal with cultural differences and be actively integrated into the Hong Kong community to improve self-efficacy whether they want to improve life well-being or achieve career development.
Second, aligning with the previous research, racial inequality appears to be a common issue that distresses most EM in Hong Kong. A large-scale survey conducted in the United Kingdom showed that 15% of black, Asian, or other ethnic minority employees reported discrimination was a critical factor limiting their career progression; in contrast, the white British who reported the same issue were only 11% [63]. Similarly, Gemelas et al. [64] found that people of different colors in America experienced different levels of employment loss during COVID-19, and African American, Asian American, and Hispanic or Latinx groups suffered the most compared to White or non-Hispanic or Latinx groups. Further, Lewis [65] found black women tended to take on too many responsibilities and perceive their work to be more scrutinized than men and suggested that racial inequality may intersect with gender inequality sometimes. As suggested by Doede [66] and Halvorsrud et al. [67], racial inequalities may lead to poor health outcomes and mental illness. The immigrants including the EM in Hong Kong tend to be frustrated by their previous experiences and have difficulties in forming positive outcome expectations for career development in the host country. The EM employees must improve resilience through self-preservation and coping strategies to combat self-limiting mindsets and navigate workplace racial discrimination [68]. Managers and human resources practitioners are also expected to identify the intersectionality process of gender, race, and class and seek to eliminate the resulting stereotyping and discrimination in organizational practices [69].
Lastly, people’s behaviors and development outcomes are influenced by diverse factors. Available external resources such as emotional and financial support may work as a complement to personal resources and then empower EM to deal with adversity in Hong Kong. Previous research has confirmed the importance of external support for different types of migrants. For instance, Dennis et al. [70] found a positive correlation between college adjustment and peer support among EM students through a longitudinal study. Guruge et al. [71] underlined the critical role of social support for immigrant women in promoting adaptation and preventing mental distress. Solheim et al. [72] explored the COVID-19-related financial and familial stressors for immigrant families and underlined the impact of job loss, housing insecurity, and constraints on resource access. However, Latimer [73] once examined the relationship between unemployment insurance benefits and demographic information in the United States and found that women and people of color were more likely to lose the benefits. Moreover, Kristal et al. [74] analyzed the benefit costs data from 1982 to 2015 and found EM tended to experiences more benefit inequality than wage inequality. The successful entrepreneurship experience of the EM in Belize and the Chinese introduced by Verver et al. [28] particularly underlined the importance of support from power holders in the host countries.
Our findings on the impact of the training program particularly focused on the improvement of career aspirations. Previous research was used to report on the contribution of two personal factors of SCCT, namely self-efficacy and outcome expectation, to the development of aspirations [75,76,77]. In this study, there was no significant difference in self-efficacy and outcome expectation between the program participants and non-program participants, while a significant difference in career aspiration emerged. These might suggest that career aspiration, self-efficacy, and outcome expectation are mutually influential and do not necessarily follow a linear process. Here are some possible explanations. Firstly, the enhancement of self-efficacy and outcome expectation happens in the process of practice [36]. Previous research has demonstrated the importance of practice in improving self-efficacy and outcome expectations [78,79,80]. In this study, the delivery of solid theoretical knowledge and technical skills and a mentored collaborative learning environment were embedded with the IT entrepreneurship training program as the core value for improving the participants’ career development. However, the emphasis on the delivery of knowledge and skills at this stage may lead to a lack of practice experience for the participants. The knowledge and skills learned from the training program stimulated the production of short-term career aspirations among the participants, while it takes more time to internalize and apply this knowledge and these skills. Aligning with the findings of Todd et al. [81] and Al et al. [82], confidence and expectation for future outcomes gradually increase through repeated practice and realistic experience. Secondly, the training program was conducted online due to the restrictions of COVID-19, and the effectiveness of the support from the mentors and peers may be reduced accordingly. Specifically, the course content was challenging for the participants without any relevant IT background, and they may have a greater demand for individualized support rather than shared resources. In addition, peer collaboration and collaborative learning are crucial elements in improving self-efficacy and persistence rates in distance courses [83]. The feedback from the participants at the end of the IT entrepreneurship training program included complaints about the limitations of online group learning and the uncooperative group members. The decrease in self-efficacy and outcome expectation may result from negative peer support and inefficient group collaboration. Lastly, cognitive dissonance might be an issue. Some participants may have a strong desire to pursue a career goal, but they also feel uncertainty about self-ability and the possible outcomes at the same time. This may lead to a conflict between their ambitions and their self-efficacy and outcome expectations. As suggested by Li et al. [84], it is critical to balance mentoring approaches and foster intrinsic motivation. The support from the mentors may need to focus on both skills and emotions during a training program.

6. Conclusions

Hong Kong EM’s career success plays a critical role not only in promoting Hong Kong’s economic development but also in strengthening the economic networks between Hong Kong and EM’s home countries. In this study, based on the SCCT, we explored internal and external challenges in career development and examined the impact of an IT entrepreneurship training program on career development among EM in Hong Kong. Taken together, we found that low levels of sociocultural adaptation, racial inequality, and lack of available resources may be the major obstacles for EM to develop a career in Hong Kong. The impact of the training program particularly focused on the improvement of career aspirations. This study highlights the need for joint efforts of the crowd and the government and the exploration of an effective training program. Hong Kong policymakers and human resources managers are encouraged to gain a deep understanding of the challenges faced by EM and develop supportive policies and strategies, such as reducing constraints for employment entry and increasing special benefits. Meanwhile, the Hong Kong EM group is expected to actively integrate into Hong Kong society, improve resilience, and utilize collective strength. In addition, individualized guidance, efficient group collaboration, and emotional support are suggested to improve the participants’ performance in a training program. Practice experience is a core element of an effective career training program. Strategies like real-world simulation could be applied as an additional study mode to provide the EM participants with practical opportunities to achieve IT entrepreneurship in a low-risk and cost-effective way. Community service learning could also be adopted not only to apply what the EM participants have learned from the program and create a learning cycle in the communities but also to encourage EM participants to step out of their small group circles and integrate into larger Hong Kong communities.
There are some limitations in this study. First, under the ‘One Country, Two Systems’ policy, Hong Kong has its unique political, cultural and economic background. Hong Kong’s capitalist market economy, marked by minimal government intervention and strong property rights, has made it a leading financial center. Its status as a separate customs territory allows independent trade and investment, enhancing its role as a commerce hub. No two countries have identical economies. The findings of this study may not apply to the EM in other regions. Second, the analysis results of the qualitative data lacked peer briefing and the use of external auditors, which may lead to some biases. Third, the disparity of the characteristics between program participants and non-program participants may cause potential biases in comparative analysis results. Fourth, there was no control group or comparison of the performance between the program participants and non-program participants at the beginning. Experimental studies are needed to gain more experience and feedback for the optimization of the training program. Finally, the level of entrepreneurship attitudes and economic knowledge may influence the performance before and after the program. Future research should take these factors into account to analyze comprehensively.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.F. and C.H.L.; methodology, C.H.L.; writing—original draft preparation, S.F.; writing—review and editing, S.F. and C.H.L.; supervision, C.H.L.; funding acquisition, C.H.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Public Policy Research Funding Scheme, grant number: 2019.A5.061.19C.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC) of The Education University of Hong Kong (Ref. No. 2017-2018-0361; Approval Date: 8 October 2019).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

The authors appreciate all the participants in the study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Table 1. Demographic Information of the Semi-Structured Interview Participants (N = 45).
Table 1. Demographic Information of the Semi-Structured Interview Participants (N = 45).
Semi-Structured Interview ParticipantsNepal
(N = 14)		Pakistan
(N = 12)		India
(N = 9)		Philippines
(N = 9)		Indonesia
(N = 1)		Total
(N = 45)
AgeM: 29.79
SD: 9.28		M: 23.08
SD: 2.68		M: 29.00
SD: 6.34		M: 26.67
SD: 6.76		M: 25.00
SD: -		M: 27.11 SD: 7.10
Gender
Female6649126
Male8650019
Education
Secondary School220105
Vocational School000101
Diploma152109
Bachelor’s degree9466126
Postgraduate Degree101002
Others110002
Employment Status
Employed full-time 10435123
Employed part-time 011103
Full-time student251109
Full-time student, part-time working010203
Part-time student011002
Part-time student, part-time working101002
Unemployed or others102003
Table 2. Demographics Information of Non-Program and Program Participants (N = 200).
Table 2. Demographics Information of Non-Program and Program Participants (N = 200).
Nepal
(N = 23)		Pakistan
(N = 53)		India
(N = 38)		Philippines
(N = 79)		Indonesia
(N = 7)		Total
(N = 200)
Program ParticipantNo
N = 12		Yes
N = 11		No
N = 43		Yes
N = 10		No
N = 29		Yes
N = 9		No
N = 70		Yes
N = 9		No
N = 7		Yes
N = 0		No
N = 161		Yes
N = 39
AgeM: 30.75 SD: 8.41M: 30.64 SD:
9.88		M: 29.79
SD: 7.39		M: 23.30 SD: 2.75M:
35.59
SD: 8.50		M: 29.33 SD: 6.04M: 37.76 SD: 5.42M: 26.78 SD: 6.72M: 43.14
SD: 4.18		 —M: 34.95 SD: 7.75M: 27.56 SD: 7.29
Gender
Female963061957097 —13526
Male35134104000 —2613
Education
Secondary School30162702414 —543
Vocational School101000911 —121
Diploma104100501 —111
Higher Diploma/Associate Diploma114421510 —17
Bachelor’s degree69931472461 —1125
Master’s degree015051100 —542
PhD/Doctorate Degree002010000 —110
Others002000200 —30
Employment Status
Employed (full-time)581931756553 —10921
Employed (part-time)415240112 —164
Student025511020 —610
Unemployed (looking for work)206033212 —154
Unemployed (not looking for work)108030200 —140
Personal Income (per month)
No income1113444202 —229
Less than HKD 10,0003260404921 —634
HKD 10,000-HKD 20,0004212250432 —277
HKD 20,001-HKD 30,000104142221 —125
More than HKD 30,000143030100 —84
Prefer not to say2253931221 —2910
Household Income (per month)
Less than HKD 10,0000040102810 —331
HKD 10,000-HKD 20,0003015461333 —308
HKD 20,001-HKD 50,0004562104222 —2413
HKD 50,001-HKD 100,000023010001 —52
More than HKD 100,000000020000 —20
Prefer not to say54154943731 —6715
Table 3. The level of self-efficacy, outcome expectation, and career goal among all the participants (N = 200).
Table 3. The level of self-efficacy, outcome expectation, and career goal among all the participants (N = 200).
Non-Program Participants
(N = 161)		Program Participants
(N = 39)
VariablesMSDMSDtdfpSE
CDSE_SF88.6421.5790.5417.360.511980.6103.72
OES72.6219.8374.0813.000.441980.6633.34
CAS: Leadership Aspirations20.766.3425.215.784.001980.000 ***1.11
CAS: Achievement Aspirations23.536.1926.693.803.051980.003 **1.04
CAS: Educational Aspirations23.077.7026.185.092.391980.018 *1.30
CAS: Total Score67.3718.2478.0812.563.471980.001 **3.09
Note. CAS: Career Aspiration Scale; CDSE-SF: Career Decision Self-Efficacy Scale-Short Form; OES: Outcome Expectation Scale; *** p < 0.001, ** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05.
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Fang, S.; Leung, C.H. An Exploratory Study: The Impact of the IT Entrepreneurship Training Program on Career Development Among Ethnic Minorities in Hong Kong. Societies 2025, 15, 48. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc15030048

AMA Style

Fang S, Leung CH. An Exploratory Study: The Impact of the IT Entrepreneurship Training Program on Career Development Among Ethnic Minorities in Hong Kong. Societies. 2025; 15(3):48. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc15030048

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Fang, Shiying, and Chi Hung Leung. 2025. "An Exploratory Study: The Impact of the IT Entrepreneurship Training Program on Career Development Among Ethnic Minorities in Hong Kong" Societies 15, no. 3: 48. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc15030048

APA Style

Fang, S., & Leung, C. H. (2025). An Exploratory Study: The Impact of the IT Entrepreneurship Training Program on Career Development Among Ethnic Minorities in Hong Kong. Societies, 15(3), 48. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc15030048

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