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Article

Preliminary Construct Validity of the Physical Activity and Sport Habits Questionnaire for Children (PASHQ-C) in Gipuzkoa

by
Aduna Badiola-Lekue
1,
Irantzu Ibañez
2,
Aitor Iturricastillo
1,
Javier Yanci
1 and
Oidui Usabiaga
1,*
1
Research Group in Physical Activity, Physical Exercise and Sport (AKTIBOki) and Society, Sport and Physical Activity (GIKAFIT) Research Group, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Education and Sport, University of the Basque Country (EHU), 01007 Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain
2
Research Group in Physical Activity, Physical Exercise and Sport (AKTIBOki) and Society, Sport and Physical Activity (GIKAFIT) Research Group, Department of Didactics of Musical, Plastic and Corporal Expression, Faculty of Education and Sport, University of the Basque Country (EHU), 01006 Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Societies 2025, 15(12), 326; https://doi.org/10.3390/soc15120326
Submission received: 18 June 2025 / Revised: 21 October 2025 / Accepted: 22 November 2025 / Published: 25 November 2025
Versions Notes

Abstract

Developing reliable and valid instruments to assess habits and correlates of physical activity and sports (PAS) in children can contribute to generating scientific evidence for implementing effective public policies to promote PAS in children. There is a significant lack of questionnaires that assess the habits and correlates of PAS in a multidimensional way. Therefore, this study aimed to gather evidence on the construct validity of the PASHQ-C, which was designed to assess the habits and correlates of PAS in schoolchildren aged 8 to 12 years in Gipuzkoa. In total, 306 schoolchildren (153 girls and 153 boys) completed the 20-item, 9-dimensional questionnaire online, which assessed general physical activity (PA), transportation from and to school, recreational screen time, family and friends’ support, spaces and facilities, sleep time, barriers, motivations, and current and future status of PA. Frequencies and percentages were calculated for each item of the questionnaire, as well as total values and values categorised by the variables of gender, course, type of school, and population. The evidence obtained in the present study demonstrates good preliminary construct validity, as the overall results align with those found in previous studies, and the differential evidence discriminates according to gender, grade, school, and municipality. However, further studies are needed using more robust psychometric techniques and in other contexts to verify and extend these findings.

1. Introduction

Physical activity (PA) plays a determining role in generating positive health outcomes in children and adolescents [1]. Adequate PA practice in childhood has been found to have positive effects on physical, psychological, social, and cognitive health, as well as overall quality of life [2,3,4,5]. Furthermore, PA practice in childhood has an influence on PA practice in adulthood [6,7], highlighting the importance of engaging in PA at an early stage. Despite the ample evidence on the benefits of PA for the health and well-being of children and young people of these ages [1], a significant proportion of them do not comply with the recommendations of the World Health Organization [8], which increases health risks [9,10]. However, it has been observed that the level of PA practice in boys and girls can depend on various factors such as age [11], gender [12], the type of educational centre [13] or the geographic and cultural location of the environment in which they live [14]. In this sense, to generate efficient public policies for promoting PA in these age groups, it is essential to understand the levels, habits, and correlates of PA practice in specific environments. This contextualised information can help the public institutions responsible for making decisions on the most appropriate strategic lines for promoting PA practice, as well as to evaluate the impact of these policies.
Measurement of PA in children and adolescents can be performed through different assessment methods and variables [15]. This diversity of PA practice measurement methods can be both complementary and enriching; however, it also makes it difficult to compare results between studies, highlighting the need for adequate standardisation and a combination of objective and subjective methods through consensus [15,16]. Thus, among the numerous methods that have been used to assess the level of PA practice [17], objective methods such as accelerometery allow for the recording of the duration and intensity of PA practiced by different populations [18,19]. However, if the aim is to explore many participants, acquiring a large number of devices and conducting data collection entails a high economic and time cost. In this sense, subjective methods, such as self-report questionnaires, can be less costly. Their administration can be efficient for analysing large samples [17,20], thereby allowing for the generalisation of the data obtained to the entire population of the studied context. In addition, self-administered questionnaires enable the collection of more information about aspects that objective methods do not report, such as the type and context of PA or the biological, psychological, sociocultural, and environmental factors that influence participation [17]. Along this line, it has been emphasised that questionnaires collect information that efficiently explains PA practice habits in children and adolescents, understood as complex and multidimensional behaviours [21]. However, it has been exposed that one of the biases of PA questionnaires for children and adolescents is the scarce evidence, in some cases, of their reliability and validity [22]. For this reason, it is advisable to enhance the psychometric properties of a questionnaire on PA practice before administering it [23].
The design and development of a questionnaire should be supported by a logical, systematic, and structured approach [24]. During its development, a test construction plan should be established that prioritises psychometric aspects [25]. Having set our sights on obtaining sufficient psychometric validity for PA questionnaires to be used with confidence, the present study aims to complement the psychometric evidence presented in a previous study by Badiola-Lekue et al. [26] on the Physical Activity and Sport Habits Questionnaire for Children (PASHQ-C). Regular participation in physical activity is a complex issue in children and adolescents, as exercise-related behaviour is multifaceted and affected by many factors to varying degrees [27,28]. The social ecological model provides an effective theoretical framework for examining the complexity of the multiple factors that influence physical activity behaviour in an organised and systematic way [29]. Furthermore, along these same lines, the questionnaire includes dimensions considered by the Global Matrix 4.0 project as essential for understanding and promoting physical activity participation among children and adolescents [30,31]. All in all, this framework provides an adequate starting point to evaluate the correlates that influence physical activity participation at these ages. Thus, this questionnaire, developed to evaluate relevant aspects that define PAS habits in children, yielded adequate results in terms of content and ecological validity, as well as test–retest reliability. Following the guidelines proposed by Trochim et al. [25], it is believed necessary to provide new psychometric evidence to enrich the three traditional types of validity (criterion, content and construct validity) identified by Meneses et al. [32]. This new evidence on the psychometric properties of the PASHQ-C would be beneficial in providing confidence in the relevance of using this questionnaire as an instrument for evaluating PAS practice in children.
The content and ecological validity of the PASHQ-C questionnaire had already been analysed previously [26]. In the present study, we aim to provide preliminary evidence of construct validity for the Physical Activity and Sport Habits Questionnaire for Children (PASHQ-C), complementing previous findings on content and ecological validity [26]. The study specifically investigates whether the questionnaire can distinguish between relevant sociodemographic groups—such as gender, school grade, type of educational centre, and type of municipality—and whether the observed patterns are consistent with prior literature on physical activity (PA) practice in children. The construct under examination is habitual physical activity and sport participation in children, conceptualised as a multidimensional behaviour influenced by biological, psychological, sociocultural, and environmental factors [29]. Based on previous research, we expect certain patterns to emerge, including higher PA levels in boys compared to girls, variations in PA by age/grade, educational setting, and geographic context, and alignment with known correlates of PA in childhood. Preliminary construct validity is operationalised through the identification of significant differences between sociodemographic groups and the comparison of observed patterns with established findings in the literature, providing preliminary convergent evidence to support the questionnaire’s validity.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Participants

To assess the construct validity of the questionnaire under study, 306 schoolchildren from 16 educational centres, aged 8 to 12 years in the province of Gipuzkoa (Basque Country, Spain), participated in the present study. The participants consisted of 153 girls and 153 boys. The sample (Table 1) was selected in a stratified way according to the characteristics of the total population of the province corresponding to the age under study, using the following variables: gender, age, type of school and region. Before commencing the research, authorisation was obtained from each school administration, along with the necessary informed consent, all of which was facilitated through the collaboration agreement with the Provincial Council of Gipuzkoa. All the girls and boys who participated in this study answered the questionnaire voluntarily, being free to withdraw from it at any time. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee for Research Involving Human Subjects (CEISH, cod. M10_2021_252) of the University of the Basque Country (EHU). It was conducted by the guidelines established in the Declaration of Helsinki [33].

2.2. Procedure

In the present study, we adopted a preliminary validation approach to assess the construct validity of the PASHQ-C. Specifically, we examined whether the instrument was able to discriminate between relevant sociodemographic groups (gender, school year, school type, and municipality type) and compared the observed patterns with findings reported in the existing literature. This strategy is widely recognised as an appropriate method in the early stages of questionnaire validation, as it provides initial evidence of the instrument’s theoretical coherence and discriminant capacity before the application of more complex confirmatory techniques [34,35,36]. The Provincial Council of Gipuzkoa was responsible for recruiting schoolchildren through the educational centres to participate in the research. The questionnaire was completed online at the corresponding educational centre under the supervision of the responsible teacher, who had a guide available to assist with any questions the schoolchildren might ask. The procedure for completing the questionnaire was explained to the participants beforehand.

2.3. Measurement

The PASHQ-C questionnaire was used [26], which had been previously designed and validated to determine the habits and level of PAS practice of primary school children aged 8 to 12 years from a multidimensional perspective. The PASHQ-C questionnaire consists of 9 dimensions: general PA dimension (items 1–6), transportation (item 7), recreational screen time (item 8), family and friends’ support (items 9–13), spaces and facilities (items 14–15), hours of sleep (item 16), perceived barriers (item 17) and motivations (item 18), and current (item 19) and future state of PAS (item 20). The questionnaire takes about 20–30 min to complete.

2.4. Data Analysis

The analysis of the data obtained is presented in terms of frequencies and percentages for each item of the questionnaire, providing total values and values according to the variables of gender, grade, type of school and municipality. To analyse the differences according to the selected contextualisation variables (gender, grade, type of school, and type of municipality), the Chi-square test (χ2) was applied, and the Z-test statistic was used for pairwise comparisons of column proportions. To complement the chi-square analyses, Cramer’s V was calculated as a measure of effect size for associations between categorical variables. Cramer’s V ranges from 0 (no association) to 1 (perfect association) and indicates the strength of the relationship. The magnitude of associations was interpreted qualitatively as follows: 0–0.10 (very weak), 0.11–0.20 (weak), 0.21–0.30 (moderate), 0.31–0.40 (strong), and >0.40 (very strong) [37,38]. Statistical analysis was performed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS Inc., version 28.0, Chicago, IL, USA), and statistical significance was set at p < 0.05.

3. Results

The results obtained in the PASHQ-C questionnaire for the total sample are presented in Table 2. Regarding the general PA dimension, the great majority of participants practice PA: 79.7% engage in moderate PA for at least 1 h per day, 97.4% participate in non-organised PA, 95.4% participate in organised PA, 80.1% participate in school sports programmes of their educational centre, and 77.1% participate in sports competitions. Regarding transportation to and from school, more than half say they walk, with motorised vehicles as the second option and non-motorised vehicles as the third option. Regarding the use of screens for recreational purposes, the most reported time during the week is less than two hours (69.9%), and on weekends, it ranges from 2 to 4 h, with 53.9% of the participants. In the schoolchildren’s close environment, they affirm that it is their friends with whom they practice PAS most (91.8%), the father is the figure selected as the most influential (88.2%), followed by the mother (86.6%), and the practice of PAS is more frequent with friends than with the family. Regarding the place of practice, the park is the primary space identified for the practice of PAS. The participants mostly sleep between 8 and 10 h a day (78.4% on weekdays and 60.5% on weekends). A total of 73.2% expressed having no barriers to the practice of PAS, with the main reasons being fun and enjoyment (90.8%), being with friends (76.1%), and health (75.7%). Finally, regarding the current status and prospects of practicing PAS, most of the schoolchildren in the present study expressed their intention to continue practicing PAS (87.9%), even when they grow up (98.4%).
Table S1 presents the results of the PAS habits obtained according to the participants’ gender and grade. Concerning gender, boys obtained significantly higher values of PAS practice than girls, specifically in items 1, 4, and 6 (p < 0.001, V = 0.195, 0.204 and 0.249) and in items 2 (p = 0.032, V = 0.123) and 3 (p = 0.029, V= 0.125). Additionally, they spent more hours dedicated to screens during the weekends (p = 0.018, V = 0.101). It was also the boys who indicated the greater influence of the coach for the practice of PAS (p < 0.001, V = 0.192) than the girls, with greater frequency of practicing PAS with friends (p < 0.001, V = 0.242) and being a more important reason than for the girls (p = 0.005, V = 0.161), as well as the preference for competing, also higher in the boys (p = 0.004, V = 0.164). Regarding age, the older the students were, the higher the values of the influence received from friends and the coach (p < 0.001, V = 0.227 and 0.270), as well as the influence of the teacher (p = 0.007, V = 0.198). A preference for the competition was also significantly higher in the 5th and 6th grades compared to the 3rd and 4th grades (p = 0.014, V = 0.181). Regarding the hours of sleep during the week, students in the 3rd grade reported the highest average, with more than 10 h (p < 0.001, V = 0.224), while those in the 6th grade reported an average of 8–10 h.
Table S2 presents the results obtained from the questionnaire, categorised by the type of school in which participants study and the type of municipality in which they reside. Regarding the type of school, students from public schools reported higher participation in the school sports programme (p < 0.001, V = 0.182) and its evaluation (p < 0.001, V = 0.366) compared to those from concerted or private schools. In the case of the latter, they obtained significantly higher values in the practice of moderate PAS (p = 0.002, V = 0.177), the practice of PAS in the environment (siblings p = 0.024, V = 0.129, other family members p = 0.002, V = 0.177, friends p = 0.014, V = 0.140, no one p = 0.005, V = 0.159), proximity to sports centres (p < 0.001, V = 0.265 and 0.227, home and school, respectively) and hours of screen time, both during the week (p = 0.014, V = 0.185) and on weekends (p < 0.001, V = 0.207). Schoolchildren from public schools reported the most hours of sleep, with ranges of less than 8 h and more than 10 h, while those from concerted or private schools fell within the 8–10 h range, both during the week (p = 0.005, V = 0.185) and on weekends (p = 0.037, V = 0.207). Regarding the type of municipality, significant differences were found mainly in terms of transportation (between p < 0.001 and p = 0.012, and V values between 0.385 and 0.170) and available spaces (between p < 0.001 and p = 0.031, and V values between 0.446 and 0.082), where participants from municipalities with smaller populations tended to use a vehicle for school transportation. In contrast, those from medium and large municipalities mainly walked. In terms of spaces, those from small municipalities were the most likely to have spaces close to the school centre for the practice of PAS, followed by those from medium-sized municipalities. Those from large municipalities were more likely to have sports centres and parks near their homes.

4. Discussion

This study aimed to analyse the construct validity of the PASHQ-C questionnaire, thereby completing the psychometric values provided by Badiola-Lekue et al. [26] regarding content validity, ecological validity and reliability. The results obtained in the present study demonstrate good construct validity, as similar findings were observed to those reported in previous studies, which primarily utilised PAS questionnaires for children aged 8 to 12 years. This suggests an apparent ability to discriminate based on gender, grade, school, and municipality. It is worth noting that the results presented in this study can help address the low validity observed in PA questionnaires for children and adolescents [22] and enhance the quality of the psychometric properties before administering them [23]. The PASHQ-C may be a suitable instrument for measuring habits and correlates of PA in children aged 8–12 years.
The total results obtained in the different dimensions of the PASHQ-C show essentially the same trends as those observed in the literature. Regarding the dimension of general PA practice, one of the most frequently used variables, as recommended by the World Health Organization, is the level of moderate and/or vigorous physical activity. In the present study, 79.7% of the girls and boys reported compliance with the daily 60 min of such activity, in line with the 71.1% found by Stracciolini et al. [39]. Along these lines, a study carried out using accelerometry by the Basque Government [40], which collected, among other data, data from the same province of Gipuzkoa analysed in the present study, stated that most of the school population performs 60 min of intense and/or moderate physical activity. Nevertheless, even though subjective measurements tend to be better than objective ones [41], which may be because children and adolescents tend to overestimate their PA levels and/or the calculation of values varies depending on whether they refer to weekdays and/or weekends, the results obtained in the present study are consistent with previous studies, confirming that the PASHQ-C questionnaire can be valid for measuring PA practice in this population.
Regarding transportation to and from school, the results of the aforementioned study [40] and those of other studies [42,43,44] align with the present study, indicating that transportation is mainly accomplished by walking. Similarly, regarding the use of screens for recreational purposes, the most frequent time slot for both girls and boys in the present study was less than 2 h on weekdays and between 2 and 4 h on weekends. Mielgo-Ayuso et al. [45] differentiated the hours by type of screen, and most options were less than 2 h of recreational screen time, both on weekdays and weekends, except for watching television, which on weekends shifted to a 2–4 h slot. In the study by Klitsie et al. [46], although the measurement was performed in minutes per week and holidays were not differentiated, the values obtained (a mean of 1.2 h per day is inferred, with maximum values of 4.2 h and minimum of 0.8 h per day) are consistent with the data obtained in the present work.
In the children’s close environment, it is the figure of friends that most children identify as the person/people with whom they practice PAS (followed by father, siblings and mother). However, it is the father who exerts the most significant influence on them to practice PAS with 88.2% of the responses (followed by the mother with 86.6% and friends with 75.5%); and in last place is the PE teacher with 41.2%. Similarly, Olivares et al. [47] observed that the family can influence the levels of PAS in young people more than the PE teacher.
No specific literature has been found that addresses the provision by girls and boys of spaces for the practice of PAS. However, Tay et al. [48] found that the perceived importance of facilities for practising PAS was high, with participants indicating that they usually practised PAS in facilities close to their schools or homes. This suggests that such proximity is an important facilitator of PAS in primary school-aged children.
The hours of sleep reported in the present study are higher than those recorded in the study of the Basque Government [40]. However, considering that the hours in bed reach 8 h, it could be established that the range is 8–10 h, which is the most selected range in the present study. In any case, both the results of the present study and the results obtained by Afonso et al. [49], Arriscado et al. [42] and Godoy-Cumillaf et al. [50] agree that the main range of hours of sleep of schoolchildren of these ages is between 8 and 10 h a day or more than 10 h.
Most of the schoolchildren in the present study (73.2%) reported having no significant barriers or difficulties with the practice of PAS, in agreement with Pantoja and Montijano [51]. In addition, the primary motivations were to have fun and enjoy themselves, to be with friends and to be healthy, as they found in other studies [48,52] where they concluded that they practiced PAS for fun and for the health benefits it brought. It is worth noting that, regarding the current status and prospects of practicing PAS, most of the schoolchildren in the present study expressed their intention to continue practicing PAS, even as adults, which aligns with the findings of Pantoja and Montijano [51]. Almost all of the total results coincide with the results obtained in the literature, thus evidencing the similarity of the measurement of the construct.
Analysing the questionnaire from the differentiation capacity in terms of the selected contextualisation variables to gender, the data of this study showed a higher PAS practice of boys in all items, coinciding with the findings of other studies [42,53,54,55,56]. Regarding PA level, Hermassi et al. [57] found significant gender differences in vigorous PA, favouring boys, but not in moderate PA. In contrast, the observational study by [58] found no differences in either. Regarding the measurement of these values through accelerometers, Kretschmer et al. [12], Larrinaga-Undabarrena et al. [59], and McLellan et al. [60] found a higher level of PA practice among boys, although Mellado-Rubio et al. [61] found no significant differences between genders. Regarding commuting, as in the present study, the literature agrees that the active mode of transport is the preferred choice for both genders, with walking being the primary mode [42,43,44]. Regarding screen time, significant differences were found in the range of fewer than two hours according to gender. These results align with other studies that have observed fewer hours dedicated by girls to sedentary activities in general [50,55,60]. Regarding the construct of family and friends, the only significant differences found by gender were the greater influence of the coach (weak effect size) and the greater practice of PAS by friends (moderate effect size), in both cases favouring boys. On this idea, Patnode et al. [62] found no gender differences in ages 10 to 17 years in terms of the support received from parents and peers, nor in the PA performed by parents. However, they did conclude that, often, one of the characteristics of the type of PA performed by boys was to perform it with peers. Regarding hours of sleep, as observed in this study, Afonso et al. [49] and Arriscado et al. [42] found no significant differences based on gender. In contrast, Godoy-Cumillaf et al. [50] concluded that girls slept fewer hours than boys. In the present study, no gender differences were identified in the barriers and/or difficulties reported for the practice of PAS, which does not coincide with previous studies [51,62], in which girls had more barriers than boys. This circumstance may be attributed to the age of the participants in the aforementioned studies, ranging from 10 to 17 years old. In the case of motivations, there were significant differences in favour of boys for two reasons: to be with friends, along the same lines as that mentioned in the family and peers dimension, and a preference for competition, coinciding with Mecías-Calvo et al. [63], who did observe more gender differences in the motivations for PAS practice (weight-body image and muscular strength-endurance in favour of boys, and urgency for health in the case of girls).
As for the school year, as the age of the children increases, the practice of organised PAS increases, showing a moderate level of association. The literature on the relationship between organised PAS and age is contradictory [13,56], as it does not follow a consistent pattern. Along the same lines, the practice of PAS performed by friends and the influence of other family members to practice PAS is higher in higher grades; in the last case, too, the level of association was moderate. However, the hours of sleep decreased, as shown by Pano-Rodriguez et al. [64]. In the other dimensions and items, no notable differences were found in age. Thus, it is observed that in most variables, the results obtained using the PASHQ-C do not align with the existing literature, as no differences were found between the different grades or ages. In this sense, the similarity of PAS levels and habits between 8 and 12 years of age observed in this territory may be because the Provincial Council of Gipuzkoa, based on Law 2/2023 of 30 March, on physical activity and sport in the Basque Country [65] and Decree 125/2008, of 1 July, on School Sports [66], proposes exceptional measures aimed at avoiding early sports specialisation such for example, geographical limitation and participatory multisport practice in schools up to the age of 12 [67]. This could, to some extent, justify the lack of coincidence between the results of this study and those found by Navarro-Patón et al. [53] in another context closely related to the one studied, where these types of policy measures are not established, and school sport is carried out through the offer of sports clubs. This interpretation is reinforced by the conclusions reached by Säfvenbom et al. [68], who highlight that sports clubs, compared to local schools, are perceived by schoolchildren as excluding entities, which generates a greater dropout rate in other territories where they are organised exclusively through sports clubs.
Regarding the type of school, the results of this study align with those of García and Suárez [13], as the levels of moderate PAS practice are higher among children enrolled in private schools compared to those in public schools. However, this study observes that children in public schools participate more and value it more highly (very strong effect size) in the school sports programme implemented within the school centre itself, leading us to believe that the public offer through school centres, implemented by the Provincial Council of Gipuzkoa, also meets the needs of families enrolled in these centres. Most children walk to school, although this is more common among those attending public centres. In addition, children attending concerted or private schools travel more than those in public schools by motorised and non-motorised vehicles. The latter may be due to the more distant location of concerted or private schools and the social, cultural, and economic backgrounds of the families that choose to enrol their children in private schools [69]. Along the same lines, these same traits could be related to higher values of PAS practice by the family and friends of children in concerted or private schools. In any case, no differences were found between children in concerted or private schools and those in public schools in other dimensions.
Finally, concerning the type of municipality, differences were found between small, medium and large municipalities in terms of transportation and spaces available for the practice of PAS, with strong and very strong levels of association. The larger the municipality, the more children walked to school from their homes. Active transportation to school was less frequent among children residing in small rural municipalities, a finding consistent with that observed by [70]. Likewise, the smaller the municipality size, the more PAS practice spaces were available near schools. According to Moreno-Llamas et al. [71], increasing the quantity and improving the quality and accessibility of PAS opportunities in both rural and urban areas can contribute to better PA, especially among individuals with lower PA levels. Nevertheless, on this issue, Moore et al. [72] concluded that the relationship between the type of environment and the municipality of residence, as well as PA in youth, is complex. As for the other dimensions and items, no differences were found based on the type of municipality.
In general terms, some dimensions of the PASHQ-C questionnaire are sensitive to differences based on gender, grade, type of school, and type of municipality in which the participants reside. However, no significant differences were found in other dimensions and items. Furthermore, the values obtained for the effect size accompany these values, differentiating the different levels of association and obtaining ranges of values that are also seen in other studies in this field, in children [73,74] as well as in studies conducted with the adult population [75]. The peculiarity of the PAS promotion policies implemented in Gipuzkoa, along with the socioecological factors at the individual, family, school, and environmental levels, may be behind this lack of differences between children from different grades, types of centres, and types of municipalities. In any case, it would be necessary to verify whether the results of the data analysis, collected using the PASHQ-C questionnaire, are similar in other practice contexts or with a larger number of participants from the same context. In any case, this questionnaire assesses the habits and correlates of PAS from a complex and multidimensional construct, along the same lines proposed by Sterd et al. [21]. In addition, the results collected through the PASHQ-C questionnaire, distributed according to the selected contextualisation variables, are beneficial for identifying existing differences between these groups and thus developing effective public policies for promoting PAS in children by competent institutions. According to Yancey et al. [76], public institution PAS promotion efforts should be based on research to achieve efficient results, and this questionnaire can provide valuable information for this purpose.
This study has several limitations that should be acknowledged. First, the findings are derived from the specific context of Gipuzkoa (Spain), which may limit the generalizability of the results to other populations or cultural settings. Second, the study relied exclusively on a single instrument (the PASHQ-C), which, although multidimensional, may not capture the full range of factors influencing physical activity and sport habits in children. Third, the study is based on self-reported data, which may introduce bias and lead to overestimation of physical activity levels. Fourth, the absence of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and other advanced psychometric indicators (e.g., model fit indices, composite reliability, or average variance extracted) constitutes an additional limitation, as these analyses would provide more robust evidence of construct validity. While some analyses of internal consistency have been reported in previous studies, a complete evaluation of reliability and detailed scoring procedures for all subscales was beyond the scope of this preliminary validation. We have explicitly highlighted these limitations in the revised manuscript. Despite these constraints, the approach employed—analysing group differences and comparing results with existing literature—represents an appropriate strategy for preliminary validation. Future research should aim to extend this work by including more diverse samples, combining the questionnaire with complementary objective and subjective measures, and applying advanced statistical techniques such as CFA or structural equation modelling to strengthen the psychometric evidence for the PASHQ-C.

5. Conclusions

The results of this study suggest that the PASHQ-C presents a multidimensional structure that allows the assessment of relevant habits and correlates of PAS in school-aged children. Observed patterns are generally consistent with those reported in validated questionnaires regarding general physical activity, active transportation, recreational screen use, family and peer influences, availability of spaces and facilities, sleep duration, perceived barriers and motivations, and both current and intended future PA practice. The questionnaire also appears to be sensitive to individual differences across gender, grade, type of school, and municipality.
However, it is important to interpret these findings with caution due to the limitations of the study, including the reliance on self-report, the use of a single instrument, and the absence of advanced psychometric analyses. Therefore, further research is needed to explore the validity of the PASHQ-C in more depth, across more diverse populations and using complementary objective and statistical methods. Despite these limitations, this study represents an initial step forward in understanding the construct validity of this multidimensional questionnaire, providing a foundation for future studies and applications in the evaluation of public policies aimed at promoting physical activity and sport in children.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/soc15120326/s1, Table S1: Distribution of PASHQ-C scores by gender and grade; Table S2: Distribution of PASHQ-C results by type of school and type of municipality.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.B.-L., J.Y. and O.U.; methodology, A.B.-L.; software, A.B.-L.; validation, A.B.-L., J.Y. and O.U.; formal analysis, A.B.-L. and A.I.; investigation, A.B.-L., A.I. and I.I.; resources, A.B.-L., A.I. and I.I.; data curation, A.B.-L. and A.I.; writing—original draft preparation, A.B.-L. and O.U.; writing—review and editing, A.B.-L., A.I., I.I., J.Y. and O.U.; supervision, A.B.-L., A.I., I.I., J.Y. and O.U.; project administration, A.B.-L. and O.U. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU) (M10_2021_252, 14 July 2021) for studies involving humans.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets presented in this article are not readily available because they have been provided by the Provincial Council of Gipuzkoa, which classifies them as sensitive data. Requests for access to the datasets should be directed to the Provincial Council of Gipuzkoa through the corresponding author of this article.

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful for the collaboration of the Gipuzkoa Provincial Council (Diputación Foral de Gipuzkoa).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
PASHQ-CPhysical Activity and Sport Habits Questionnaire for Children
PASPhysical activity and sports
PAPhysical activity
CEISHEthics Committee for Research Involving Human Subjects

References

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Table 1. Distribution of participants by gender according to grade, type of school and region.
Table 1. Distribution of participants by gender according to grade, type of school and region.
Total GirlsBoys
n (%)n (%)n (%)
Primary School Grade3° grade42 (13.7)19 (12.4)23 (15.0)
4° grade99 (32.4)53 (34.6)46 (30.1)
5° grade51 (16.7)23 (15.1)28 (18.3)
6° grade114 (37.3)58 (37.9)56 (36.6)
Type of schoolPublic125 (40.8)60 (39.2)65 (42.5)
Concerted or Private181 (59.2)93 (60.8)88 (57.5)
Region123 (7.5)11 (7.2)12 (7.8)
224 (7.8)11 (7.2)13 (8.5)
38 (2.6)4 (2.6)4 (2.6)
441 (13.4)20 (13.1)21 (13.7)
525 (8.2)12 (7.8)13 (8.5)
6132 (43.1)63 (41.2)69 (45.1)
753 (17.3)32 (20.9)21 (13.7)
Table 2. Distribution of total results of the PASHQ-C.
Table 2. Distribution of total results of the PASHQ-C.
ItemOptionsTotal n (%)
1. Moderate PAS 1 h/dayYes244 (79.7)
No62 (20.3)
2. Non-organised PASYes298 (97.4)
No8 (2.6)
3. Organised PASYes292 (95.4)
No14 (4.6)
4. Participation in the SS programmeYes245 (80.1)
No61 (19.9)
5a. Evaluation of the SS programmeBad1 (0.3)
Fair13 (4.2)
Good39 (12.7)
Very good115 (37.6)
Excellent77 (25.2)
5b. Status regarding the SS programme Not available at my school 2 (0.7)
Participated and quit 22 (7.2)
Never participated 37 (12.1)
6. Participation in competitionsYes236 (77.1)
No70 (22.9)
7. Commute to/from schoolWalking206 (67.3)/178 (58.2)
Non-motor vehicle73 (23.9)/58 (19.0)
Motor vehicle129 (42.2)/100 (32.7)
8. Recreational screen on a weekday/weekend<2 h214 (69.9)/91 (29.7)
2–4 h78 (25.5)/165 (53.9)
>4 h3 (1.0)/37 (12.1)
9. PAS practice in a closed environmentMother225 (73.5)
Father254 (83.0)
Sibling231 (75.5)
Other relatives193 (63.1)
Friends281 (91.8)
No one213 (69.6)
10. Influence to practice PASMother265 (86.6)
Father270 (88.2)
Sibling177 (57.8)
Other relatives152 (49.7)
Friends231 (75.5)
PE teacher126 (41.2)
Coach179 (58.5)
No one177 (57.8)
11. PAS practice with familyNever7 (2.3)
Sometimes149 (48.7)
Often128 (41.8)
Always22 (7.2)
12. PAS practice with peers Never6 (2.0)
Sometimes62 (20.3)
Often148 (48.4)
Always90 (29.4)
13. Encourage friends to practice PAS Yes267 (87.3)
No39 (12.7)
14. Place near-home for PAS practiceSports centre134 (43.8)
Park253 (82.7)
Playground177 (57.8)
Natural environment168 (54.9)
Does not exist120 (39.2)
15. Place near school for PAS practiceSports centre132 (43.1)
Park229 (74.8)
Playground225 (73.5)
Natural environment193 (63.1)
Does not exist113 (36.9)
16. Sleep hours on a weekday/weekend <8 h41 (13.4)/39 (12.7)
8–10 h240 (78.4)/185 (60.5)
>10 h25 (8.2)/82 (26.8)
17. Difficulties in practicing PASI do not have224 (73.2)
I don’t like PAS0 (0.0)
I am not good at PAS0 (0.0)
I don’t like to compete32 (10.5)
I am too tired0 (0.0)
Too much homework26 (8.5)
Lack of time26 (8.5)
Costly7 (2.3)
Health reasons17 (5.6)
Other barriers31 (10.1)
18. Reasons for practicing PASBe with my friends233 (76.1)
Physical appearance145 (47.4)
Have fun/enjoy myself278 (90.8)
I like to compete139 (45.4)
Because of my parents86 (28.1)
It’s healthy231 (75.7)
Other reasons91 (29.7)
19. Current PAS statusI don’t practice, and I don’t want to3 (1.0)
I don’t practice, but I want to6 (2.0)
I practice, but I don’t want to28 (9.2)
I practice and I want to 269 (87.9)
20. PAS practice perspective in adulthoodYes301 (98.4)
No5 (1.6)
n: frequency; %: percentage; PAS: physical activity and/or sport; PE: physical education; SS: school sport.
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MDPI and ACS Style

Badiola-Lekue, A.; Ibañez, I.; Iturricastillo, A.; Yanci, J.; Usabiaga, O. Preliminary Construct Validity of the Physical Activity and Sport Habits Questionnaire for Children (PASHQ-C) in Gipuzkoa. Societies 2025, 15, 326. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc15120326

AMA Style

Badiola-Lekue A, Ibañez I, Iturricastillo A, Yanci J, Usabiaga O. Preliminary Construct Validity of the Physical Activity and Sport Habits Questionnaire for Children (PASHQ-C) in Gipuzkoa. Societies. 2025; 15(12):326. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc15120326

Chicago/Turabian Style

Badiola-Lekue, Aduna, Irantzu Ibañez, Aitor Iturricastillo, Javier Yanci, and Oidui Usabiaga. 2025. "Preliminary Construct Validity of the Physical Activity and Sport Habits Questionnaire for Children (PASHQ-C) in Gipuzkoa" Societies 15, no. 12: 326. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc15120326

APA Style

Badiola-Lekue, A., Ibañez, I., Iturricastillo, A., Yanci, J., & Usabiaga, O. (2025). Preliminary Construct Validity of the Physical Activity and Sport Habits Questionnaire for Children (PASHQ-C) in Gipuzkoa. Societies, 15(12), 326. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc15120326

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