‘Two Families Rejected Her; We Won’t’—Experiences of Same-Sex Couples in the Chilean Public Adoption System

Abstract

In Chile, same-sex couples have faced legal and social barriers that limit their equitable access to the adoption process. Objective: To explore the experiences of three same-sex couples who completed the adoption process in the Chilean public system before implementing the equal marriage law in 2022. Method: A qualitative phenomenological approach was employed, using semi-structured interviews to collect narratives from adoptive families. The information was analyzed using qualitative content analysis, identifying patterns and emerging themes. Results: It was revealed that families identified a market-driven logic within the adoption process, where personal preferences and prejudices influence the adoption decisions of traditional families, from which same-sex couples try to distance themselves. Additionally, significant challenges related to emotional bonding and family adaptation post-adoption were identified. Same-sex couples reported being clearly in a different position compared to traditional families and faced additional difficulties due to a lack of institutional support and insufficient post-adoption follow-up. Discussion and Conclusions: The need for structural reforms in the Chilean adoption system is highlighted to ensure equity and fair treatment for all families, regardless of their composition. The conclusion emphasizes the importance of implementing inclusive policies that recognize and support family diversity, promoting a fairer and more equitable adoption system that ensures the well-being of all children involved.

1. Introduction

In recent decades, academic research has delved into the experiences of adoption and parenting among same-sex couples, providing a more nuanced understanding of family dynamics and child development in these contexts. Numerous studies have examined the psychological and emotional well-being of children raised by same-sex parents. A recent meta-analysis found no significant differences in emotional, behavioral, or educational development between these children and those raised by heterosexual parents [1]. These findings suggest that parental sexual orientation is not a determining factor for children’s well-being.

On the other hand, same-sex couples often face unique challenges in the adoption process. A qualitative study in Europe identified legal and social barriers that hinder adoption by same-sex couples, including institutional biases and lack of legal recognition in certain countries [2]. These barriers can negatively impact the adoption experience and the families’ well-being.

Despite legal advancements, same-sex families continue to face social stigmatization. A recent study highlighted that perceived discrimination can affect the psychological well-being of both parents and children, underscoring the need for social and policy interventions to promote acceptance and recognition of family diversity [3].

Thus, the academic literature indicates that same-sex families provide healthy and supportive environments for child development. However, challenges related to institutional barriers and social stigmatization persist. In this context, this research seeks to analyze the experiences of same-sex couples adopting in Chile.

1.1. Chilean Adoption Context

In Chile, the adoption process was managed by the National Service for Minors (SENAME) from 1980 to 2021. This institution was established to protect children and teenagers whose rights have been violated and to facilitate the social reintegration of those in conflict with the law under the supervision of the Ministry of Justice and Human Rights [4]. As of 1 October 2021, the SENAME program was restructured to focus exclusively on juvenile justice and reintegration, while the responsibility for child adoption was transferred to a new entity called National Service for Specialized Protection of Children and Adolescents (known as “Mejor Niñez” [Better Childhood]), under the Ministry of Social Development and Family [5].

The adoption program in Chile is defined as: “The set of activities aimed at providing a child with a responsible family, which mainly includes support and guidance to the child’s original family, the reception and care of the child, the technical evaluation of applicants, and their preparation as an adoptive family” [4] (p. 2).

Currently, adoption processes are part of the Mejor Niñez program. However, this research focuses on experiences before the 2021 restructuring, limiting the sociohistorical analysis to that period, following the guidelines of the former SENAME.

The adoption program under the former SENAME included two key subprograms: the Child Reception and Care Subprogram, which emphasized a rights-based approach and the child’s best interests, and the Applicant Evaluation and Adoptive Family Preparation Subprogram. The latter required strict criteria, such as being over 25 and under 60 years old, having been married for at least two years, and undergoing an evaluation of physical, mental, psychological, and moral health to be considered eligible.

Despite the efforts of the Chilean State to guarantee the right to live in a family, established regulations and practices have created significant challenges for certain groups, particularly for same-sex couples. Until the enactment of Law No. 21400 in 2021, which came into force in 2022, same-sex couples did not have the legal right to marry, which excluded them from the adoption process on equal terms with heterosexual couples. This institutional exclusion, affecting both marriages and civil unions, has been a source of inequality in access to adoption.

This exclusion contradicts the fundamental right enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights [6], which recognizes in Article No. 16 the family as an essential and natural element protected by the State and society. It acknowledges the right to marry and find a family without discrimination or restriction from the age of maturity. While the former SENAME did not explicitly exclude the LGBTIQ+ community from the possibility of adoption, the legal requirement of being married for at least two years directly marginalized these families, forcing them to adopt individually [7]. For example, same-sex couples in civil unions had to dissolve their partnership to adopt as single individuals, placing them at a lower priority level compared to married cisgender heterosexual families.

From this context, the guiding question of this research is: What was the experience of same-sex couples who managed to adopt through the Chilean public system before the equal marriage law came into effect?

1.2. Situation of LGBTIQ+ People in Chile

The LGBTIQ+ population faces multiple human rights violations. Globally, one-third of countries still legally sanction same-sex relationships, even when they are consensual. This international context contributes to the discrimination of LGBTIQ+ people based on their sexual orientation, as the laws in these countries reinforce existing prejudices about people’s private lives [8].

In Chile, while significant progress has been reported, various injustices persist [9,10,11]. LGBTIQ+ people in Chile continue to face discrimination. According to a study by the Movement for Homosexual Integration and Liberation (MOVILH) [12], 89.3% of LGBTIQ+ individuals have experienced discrimination at least once in their lives, and 64.4% in the past year. The figures are even more alarming for trans people, with 94.1% reporting having been discriminated against at least once in their lives. In particular, LGBTIQ+ people who choose to become parents face various challenges [13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21].

These situations of inequality, along with the legislation that governed the former SENAME, reflect an adverse environment for same-sex couples to form families through adoption. Although the recent approval of the law allowing same-sex marriage represents a significant advance in human rights (Law No. 21,400, 2021), the experiences of families who adopted before this law reveal the legal and social barriers they faced. This study aims to capture those experiences, analyze their opportunities for participation in the face of legal barriers, and highlight the need for social, political, and cultural changes.

Thus, this study investigates the experiences and perceptions of adoptive families in Chile, with a special focus on the experiences of same-sex couples within the adoption system. Through a qualitative analysis, the study explores the market dynamics influencing the adoption process, emotional bonding strategies, and the structural challenges faced by adoptive families. Additionally, it discusses proposals for reforming the adoption system to make it more inclusive and equitable, ensuring fair treatment for all families and promoting the well-being of all children involved.

2. Materials and Methods

This exploratory research is qualitative in nature and is situated within the interpretative paradigm with a phenomenological approach [22]. The study was conducted with three Chilean same-sex couples who completed the adoption process through the former SENAME program, two of them in 2020 and one in 2021.

For the sample selection, an intentional sampling method was used [23], with the inclusion criteria being same-sex couples over 18 years old who self-identify as lesbian, gay, trans, or another family configuration recognized within the LGBTIQ+ community, as well as including single-parent families. Additionally, the couples had to have completed the adoption process through the Chilean public system before 2021.

Rigorous measures were adopted to ensure compliance with ethical principles during data collection, following the guidelines established by bioethical principles [24] and the Yogyakarta Principles [25] related to gender identity. The confidentiality and anonymity of all participating families were guaranteed, and informed consent was obtained before conducting the interviews.

For data collection, semi-structured interviews with open-ended questions were employed to deeply explore the experiences of adoptive families [26]. The interviews were conducted online due to public health restrictions and were recorded in audio format for later transcription. Audio files were securely stored in a Google Drive folder with restricted access exclusively for researchers. These data will be retained for five years before being permanently deleted. The anonymity of each interviewed family was ensured in all records and transcriptions.

Analysis Plan

The data analysis was conducted using qualitative content analysis, which allows for the systematic organization of the collected information while preserving the subjectivity of each family’s narratives [22]. This approach focuses on identifying thematic patterns and emerging meanings within the qualitative data, ensuring that the participants’ individual experiences are interpreted within their own context.

The analysis process was carried out in several stages: initially, all interviews were transcribed verbatim. Subsequently, the transcriptions were read intensively to identify emerging themes and subthemes. These themes were categorized, and codes were developed to represent the different dimensions of the experiences lived by same-sex couples during the adoption process.

An inductive approach was used to develop categories from the data, allowing findings to emerge directly from the participants’ narratives rather than imposing predefined categories. This approach ensures that the analysis authentically reflects the experiences and perceptions of the participating families.

Finally, the analysis results were discussed and validated by all researchers to ensure the reliability and validity of the analytical process. The findings were contextualized within the broader framework of the existing literature on adoption and the rights of LGBTIQ+ families in Chile and other international contexts.

3. Results

The following are the research results. First, the sociodemographic data of the interviewed families are detailed, followed by an analysis of the categories and subcategories identified from the interviews. To maintain the anonymity of the interviewees, initials followed by a number corresponding to the order in which the interviews were conducted will be used.

3.1. Background of Families

The interviews were conducted with three families: two same-sex male parents (F1 and F3) and one same-sex female parent (F2). None of the participating families had children in their households before the adoption, allowing the study to focus exclusively on adoption dynamics in childless households. Each family was designated with the letter “F” for “family” and a number indicating the order of the interviews. Below is a summary of the most relevant sociodemographic data:

• F1 (Same-sex male parents): Residing in Santiago, the central region of Chile. The couple have been in a relationship for 10 years and has lived together for 5 years. The members of this family are a speech therapist and a mathematics teacher. They adopted one boy.
• F2 (Same-sex female parents): Residing in La Serena, in the northern region of the country. The couple have been together for 6 years, with 5 years of cohabitation. Both are social workers. They adopted one girl.
• F3 (Same-sex male parents): Also residing in Santiago. The couple have been together for 20 years, with 17 years of cohabitation. The members are a journalist and an agronomist. They adopted three biological siblings (one girl and two boys).

Based on the educational level of the members of the interviewed families, who have higher education degrees, it can be inferred that these families belong to a middle socioeconomic level [27].

3.2. Identified Categories and Subcategories

The interview results were organized into four main categories with several subcategories to allow for a more detailed and comprehensive analysis of the families’ experiences in the adoption process. These categories are detailed in the following

Table 1. Results organized into categories and subcategories.

Category	Subcategories
1. Market Dynamics and Personal Preferences in the Adoption Process	(1.1) Between State Offerings and Marketized Adoption: What Families Expect from the Children
	(1.2) In Search of Matches and Family Traits: Desired Attributes in the Adoption Process
	(1.3) Consumption Logic During the Adoption Process by Families
2. Experiences and Trajectories in the Adoption Process	(2.1) Temporal Trajectories in the Adoption Process
	(2.2) The Approach with Former SENAME Officials in the Adoption Process
	(2.3) Between Heartbeats and Embraces: Journeys through the Adoption Process
3. Weaving New Dynamics: The Impact of Adoption on the Family	(3.1) Forging Bonds: Forming Emotional Ties in Adoption
	(3.2) Everyday Transformations in the Adoption Journey: How Habits and Routines Change
	(3.3) Weaving the Story Under the Implications of the Adoption Process in Couple Relationships
4. Hopes and Challenges: Perspectives on Adoption in the Chilean Context	(4.1) Post-Adoption Daily Narratives
	(4.2) What is Expected for the Future?: Proposals and Advances for the Adoption Process in Chile

Source: Authors’ own creation.

.

Each category and subcategory reflect different dimensions of the experiences lived by the adoptive families, providing a framework to understand how they navigate the adoption process, the challenges they face, and their perspectives on the necessary reforms in the Chilean adoption system.

3.3. Categories

3.3.1. Market Dynamics and Personal Preferences in the Adoption Process

This category examines how market structures influence adoption in Chile, highlighting the interaction between the specific preferences of adoptive families and the criteria imposed by the state adoption system. This analysis reveals a complex process where families, treated as consumers, must navigate an “adoption market” that evaluates children and potential adoptive parents based on criteria often reflecting both deeply rooted social norms and specific personal expectations. By unraveling these interactions, the category aims to offer a deeper understanding of how personal desires intertwine with an institutional framework that commodifies adoption, impacting both families and the children involved.

Between State Offerings and Marketized Adoption: What Families Expect from the Children

This subcategory explores the intersection between the expectations of adoptive families and the market logic manifesting in the adoption process, particularly in how the Chilean state presents the “offer” of children available for adoption. The interviews reveal how this process can come to be perceived as a commercial transaction, where families express preferences based on physical characteristics, health backgrounds, and other factors, similar to the selection of goods in a market.

The quotes reflect the tension between the desire to form a family and the uncomfortable nature of the selection process, which can make families feel as though they are “buying” a child. This feeling is particularly evident in the experience of F2, where the list of questions about the child’s physical preferences and background is perceived as an ethical invasion, which “feels like buying a child”.

“When they asked us how we wanted our (...) daughter, the questions were so intense, it felt like we were buying a child, and we were like, really, do they have to ask us this?” (F2)

On the other hand, F1 highlights the impact that the child’s medical background has on the adoption decision, reflecting a legitimate concern but also showing how these factors are treated as characteristics of a “product” in adoption. The narrative of F3 introduces a different perspective, noting that LGBT families tend to be more willing to adopt children with a wide range of backgrounds, suggesting an implicit critique of the market model and an openness to accepting the “baggage” that all children, to some extent, bring with them.

“LGBT families have a willingness to adopt a broader spectrum of children in all their absolute diversities—physical, cognitive, emotional, etc. (...). It’s because we have a different disposition due to our life experiences, so we’re not predisposed to just wanting a baby. We accept children who come with ‘baggage’—hey, we all come with baggage! It seems LGBT families have incorporated that in a much more harmonious way.” (F3)

Thus, this subcategory reveals how the expectations of adoptive families, influenced by a system that commodifies adoption, can clash with their ethical and moral principles. Through this analysis, it becomes evident that there is a need to rethink the state’s approach to the adoption process so that it better aligns with values of care and respect for the dignity of children, rather than perpetuating a market logic that reduces children to a list of desired characteristics.

In Search of Matches and Family Traits: Desired Attributes in the Adoption Process

This subcategory focuses on the specific demands of adoptive families regarding the characteristics and attributes of the children they wish to adopt. As described in the interviews, the adoption process includes multiple selection filters where families express their preferences, revealing an almost transactional approach in the search for matches between the child and the family, known as a “match”.

The quotes provided illustrate how same-sex couples perceive the expectations of traditional adoptive families as being heavily influenced by ideals and fantasies about the “perfect” child. F1 mentions a case where a family had a very specific image in mind: “light eyes, dark hair, likes soccer”, reflecting a desire to personalize the adoption experience, almost as if they were creating an idealized profile. This attitude is reinforced by the selection process, where families must fill out a detailed form about their preferences, formalizing these expectations.

F2 offers a contrasting perspective from same-sex couples by describing their reaction to E, a child with multiple developmental challenges who two families had previously rejected. This experience highlights how initial expectations can clash with reality and how the process can lead families to confront their own prejudices and limitations regarding what they are willing to accept.

“They introduced us to E, who did not speak, did not make eye contact, wore diapers, walked with difficulty, and showed many behaviors like a general developmental delay. They told us that E had already been rejected by two families, one Chilean and one foreign, and We said, ‘I won’t reject her.’” (F2).

F3 recounts a similar experience, where the possibility of adopting siblings is something that traditional families are often unwilling to consider:

“We said, well, where will we face less competition? In sibling groups, especially trios or more siblings. In these cases, there are practically no interested families, so we thought the adoption process could be more expeditious and smoother, and indeed it was.”

Finally, F3 also details how the Chilean adoption system forces families to create an exhaustive “checklist” of what they are willing to accept, from family backgrounds to health conditions and disabilities. This very explicit and detailed approach, where families must decide between what is acceptable and unacceptable, highlights the tension between the desire to adopt and the reality that not all children will fit into the preconceived image of a child. This does not imply a barrier, considering the accounts of same-sex couples.

In conclusion, this subcategory reveals the complexity and, at times, the harshness of the adoption process, where families are pushed to evaluate and decide based on specific attributes, creating a filter that can limit adoption opportunities for many children. This process affects not only the expectations and desires of families but also their ability to face the reality of adopting a child with characteristics that may not have been part of their initial image. The insistence on the ideal “match” highlights the inherent difficulties in adoption and the need for a more humanized approach that considers both the expectations of families and the overall well-being of children. In this process, the interviewed same-sex couples seem more open to the possible social expectations about the ideal family.

Consumer Logic in the Adoption Process by Families

This subcategory illustrates how the adoption process in Chile can be perceived and structured as a market, where children are considered goods and adoptive families are the consumers. This analysis attempts to integrate the perspectives of families affected by this mercantile approach, highlighting how norms and social prejudices shape who has access to childcare.

The narratives of F1, F2, and F3 reveal a common concern about how families’ personal and social characteristics influence their “position in the market” of adoption, affecting their opportunities and the nature of their participation in the process. The implicit discrimination in this system manifests at various levels:

Institutional Expectations and Prejudices. F1 and F2 address how certain expectations about what constitutes an “ideal family” can lead to rejections or difficulties in the adoption process. F1 criticizes the idea that families seek adoption as a way to complete their ideal family, often without a genuine focus on the child’s needs. F2, on the other hand, highlights how same-sex couples are explicitly discouraged due to institutional prejudices, being considered less desirable options.

“This order of precedence indicates who has the first priority, which are Chilean married couples, second priority foreign married couples, third priority widowers, singles, and divorced; so in this order of precedence, we had to adopt as singles after annulling the civil union agreement” (F3).

Hierarchy in Adoption. F3 explains how the system establishes an order of precedence that favors certain demographic groups over others. This “order” not only reflects but also reinforces conventional social norms and values, assigning priorities based on marital status and nationality, thus perpetuating a structured discrimination that affects widowers, singles, and same-sex couples.

Challenging Social Norms. Despite these barriers, families, particularly those who do not fit the traditional mold (such as same-sex couples and singles), often show a greater willingness to adopt children with diverse needs or complicated histories. This approach challenges the norms of the adoption “market” and underscores a willingness to accept and love children who might otherwise be overlooked in the system.

When interpreted through the lens of consumer logic, the adoption process reveals significant inequalities and raises ethical questions about how families and children are evaluated and treated. The narratives of the interviewed families illustrate not only the challenges of navigating this system but also the resistance against a model that sometimes seems more concerned with maintaining certain social norms than with the welfare of children. This analysis suggests an urgent need to reassess and restructure adoption policies to make them more inclusive, fair, and centered on the needs and rights of all children.

3.3.2. Experiences and Journeys in the Adoption Process

This category explores the diverse experiences and journeys that adoptive families go through during the adoption process in Chile. From the duration and stages of the process to the relationship and support received from ex-SENAME officials and the profound emotions experienced in the pre- and post-adoption phases, each subcategory reflects the complexity and uniqueness of these families’ experiences. These narratives help us understand how temporal dynamics, institutional interactions, and emotional challenges intertwine to shape the paths families take to form a home through adoption.

Temporal Trajectories in the Adoption Process

This subcategory refers to the diversity of experiences that families have regarding the chronological time during the adoption process. Time in this context is not just an objective measure but takes on a subjective character intertwined with each family’s emotions, expectations, and tensions. Based on the analyzed quotes, we can observe significant variations in the perception and duration of the process, reflecting both the peculiarities of the system and the specific circumstances of each family.

Duration and Variability of the Process. The narratives reveal considerable variability in the duration of the adoption process, influenced by factors such as existing legislation, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the mechanisms families use to expedite the process. For example, family F1 mentions that their process took nine months, from the decision to the child’s arrival in their home. The speed of this process is framed in the context of the pandemic, which seems to have facilitated a more expedited transition. On the other hand, family F2 experienced a significantly longer process, nearly a year, highlighting the potential slowness and bureaucratic complexity some families may face. In contrast, family F3 describes a quick process of approximately six months, thanks to applying the Lobby Law, which allowed for greater agility in procedures.

“The process was very, very long; we started in January or February 2021 (...) and she was given to us on December 9, 2021. It took too long, almost a year.” (F2)

Contextual Factors and Subjectivity of Time: The phenomenological analysis suggests that contextual and subjective factors deeply influence the temporal experience of the adoption process. The pandemic, for example, significantly altered normal dynamics, as seen in F1’s account, where the child never returned to the institution once delivered to the family. This suggests accelerating the process that may have been atypical in normal times. Conversely, F2’s perception of the duration as “too long” highlights how temporal expectations can affect the emotional experience of adoption, generating frustration and impatience.

Impact of Legislation and Administrative Strategies. F3’s testimony introduces a relevant aspect of the analysis: the influence of legislation and administrative strategies on the experience of the process. The mention of the Lobby Law suggests that certain legal mechanisms can speed up the process, emphasizing the importance of understanding how policies and regulations affect families’ trajectories within the adoption system.

In summary, this subcategory reveals a temporal complexity that goes beyond mere chronology. Families’ experiences are shaped by a web of contextual, emotional, and legal factors that configure a unique and highly subjective experience of time. To fully understand these trajectories, it is necessary to consider both external influences and the internal perceptions that families develop throughout the process.

Approach with ex-SENAME Officials in the Adoption Process

It is important to highlight that, in the absence of specific legislation in Chile for adoption by same-sex couples, those who wished to adopt and were in a civil union had to do so under the figure of adopting as single individuals. Several families employed this strategy, and as reflected in the testimonies, it was supported by the Chilean adoption system, showing the system’s flexibility in practice despite the lack of formal legal recognition for these couples.

This subcategory addresses how the interviewed families perceive and describe their interactions with ex-SENAME officials during the adoption process. This analysis focuses on the quality of the relationship, the delivery of information, support, and guidance provided to families at crucial moments of the process. The provided quotes allow for identifying variability in the experiences, although all share a generally positive tone regarding the perception of support from the officials.

Close Relationship and Guidance. The narratives suggest that the relationship with ex-SENAME officials was generally perceived as close and welcoming. For example, F1 mentions that the official in charge of the child was “always attentive” to the family’s progress, demonstrating a proactive approach in assisting with paperwork and providing a space described as “very welcoming” and emotionally significant at the end of the process. This close relationship facilitated the logistical process and helped create an emotionally positive environment for the family, a crucial aspect in a delicate process like adoption.

“(...) We said we won’t be able to adopt, and they told me, don’t worry, you can adopt as a single person, and your partner will be considered in the adoption process (...). They were very good to us; we had a very nice process, always answering my questions. I have spoken with other people who have been in the adoption process, and they tell me that the adoption units never respond” (F2).

Support in Unusual Situations. The quotes also highlight how the officials provided solutions and support in unconventional situations. F2, for instance, recounts a situation where they thought they would not be able to adopt due to their civil status. Still, the officials provided alternatives and the necessary reassurance to continue the process. This demonstrates flexibility on the part of the ex-SENAME team and a willingness to adapt to each family’s specific circumstances, suggesting a client-centered approach.

Variability in Experiences. Despite the generally positive perception, F2’s quote introduces a comparative dimension by mentioning that other people have had less satisfactory experiences where adoption units do not adequately respond to the families’ questions or needs. This observation highlights possible inconsistencies in the level of service provided by ex-SENAME, suggesting that while many families experience a high level of support, this is not a universal experience.

Flexibility in the Process. F3’s account adds another layer to the analysis, highlighting the ex-SENAME team’s flexibility in their particular case. Although the adoption was formalized as a single adoption, the partner was considered in the process, reflecting a sensitivity toward non-traditional family dynamics. Additionally, the follow-up offered by the team post-adoption, unless the family decided otherwise, shows a continued commitment to the family’s well-being beyond the formal act of adoption.

“(...) It was one of us two who took on the legal care, but SENAME always evaluated us as a family. (...) The person in charge of B (...) was always attentive to where we were, how we were doing, how to help us with the paperwork (…) so, in truth, it was a very welcoming space. When we closed the process, it was even emotional, and (...) everyone from SENAME was truly very welcoming” (F1).

Thus, this category reflects a predominantly positive relationship dynamic between adoptive families and ex-SENAME officials, characterized by closeness, flexibility, and high emotional and practical support. However, the mention of disparate experiences suggests a need for greater consistency in the quality of service provided. The client-centered approach and flexibility in applying regulations are key elements contributing to a more satisfying and less stressful experience for the families involved.

Between Heartbeats and Hugs: Journeys Through the Adoption Process

This subcategory focuses on the emotions and affective experiences that families undergo during the adoption process, both in the pre-adoptive phase, when interacting with ex-SENAME officials, and in the post-adoptive phase, when they begin caring for the adopted children. The collected narratives reveal many emotions, from happiness and excitement to anxiety and self-critical reflection.

Emotions of Uncertainty and Self-Reflection. The interviews show that one of the prevalent emotions during the process is uncertainty about the adoptive parent’s ability to assume their new role. In F1, the parents privately reflect on whether they are “capable” of meeting their own expectations in their new role. Although they do not express regret, their doubts reflect a common internal struggle in adoption processes, where the ideal of parenting faces the daily reality and unforeseen challenges that come with it.

The Emotion of the Encounter. F2’s narrative describes the initial meeting with the adopted girl as an “exciting” moment, comparing it to childbirth, highlighting the intensity of the emotional bond that begins to form from the first contact. However, this moment of joy is overshadowed by the experience of having to return the girl to the temporary home, an action F2 describes as “cruel”. This reveals a mix of emotions, where the happiness of the encounter intertwines with the sadness and frustration of temporary separation, creating an emotionally wrenching experience.

“We went to meet her at the residence where she was staying. It was exciting; I felt it was like childbirth (...). They handed her over to us for a little while to take her home. We were at home, she took a nap, got to know the house, and then we had to return her to the residence. I found that cruel” (F2).

Contradictory Emotions. Families highlight the coexistence of opposing emotions: happiness, anxiety, and anger. The family describes feeling “incompetence” and “anxiety” when facing the demands of caring for a new child, generating a sense of emotional overwhelm. These emotions reflect a profound internal struggle, where the joy of completing the adoption process is threatened by the fear of not living up to expectations, both their own and others. The mention of feeling “shaken” and seeking an outlet suggests that, for adoptive parents, the process is not only a journey of love and connection but also a significant psychological challenge.

In this subcategory, the narratives reflect a process filled with uncertainty, self-reflection, and intense positive and negative emotions. The duality of the experience—where happiness and anxiety coexist—highlights the depth of the emotional bond formed during the adoption process but also underscores the need for greater emotional support for adoptive parents, who must navigate these emotional waters with adequate support to ensure their well-being and that of their children.

3.3.3. Weaving New Dynamics: The Impact of Adoption on the Family

This category explores how families are transformed with the arrival of a new member through adoption. This section delves into the personal and collective adaptations necessary to welcome an adopted child, covering everything from forming emotional bonds to adjusting daily routines and the dynamics of the couple’s relationship. Each subcategory breaks down a different facet of this process, revealing both the challenges and rewards of redefining the concept of family and shared space. Through personal narratives, families share their strategies, difficulties, and successes in weaving a new family story together, offering a valuable testimony of resilience, adaptation, and love.

Forging Bonds: The Formation of Emotional Ties in Adoption

This subcategory addresses families’ experiences in forming emotional bonds with adopted children, highlighting narratives about how these relationships emerge, develop, and transform both the children and the parents. It focuses on the strategies used, the challenges faced, and how these experiences contribute to building a family identity.

The families’ narratives provide a window into the diversity of experiences in the bonding process, revealing both the challenges and significant moments that mark the transition toward forming a new family.

Early Beginnings and Family Identity Formation. Family F1 describes the bonding process with a child adopted at a very young age, highlighting the perceived advantages of not having a visible biological family in the background. The strategy, focused on close physical contact and emotional stability, emphasizes how intentional and repetitive actions can foster a sense of security and belonging in the child, facilitating their integration into the new family and helping to form a cohesive family identity.

Rapid Bonding and Its Complexities. Family F2 shares an experience of almost immediate attachment with a girl with autism and severe language delay. The narrative illustrates how, despite the apparent ease in establishing the initial bond, the family faced challenges in fully understanding the girl’s needs. The mentioned “over-adaptation” suggests underlying complexity in the girl’s quick adaptation, which may reflect previous coping strategies that require sensitivity and adjustment from the parents.

“We didn’t have many issues with attachment; it was almost immediate; it was like the first time we saw each other as if we had always known each other” (F2).

Initial Challenges and Dramatic Changes. The experience of Family F3, with intense emotional dysregulation during the first interactions, highlights the challenges that may arise when a child faces significant changes. The child’s initial reaction to the new situation was one of rejection and a desire to return to a familiar environment. However, a change in strategy the following day—recognizing the child’s need to move quickly towards the new life—facilitated a notable shift in her behavior and confidence.

The narratives suggest that while the process may be filled with challenges, it is also marked by deep connection and transformation moments. The interviews underscore the importance of sensitivity, patience, and adaptability by adoptive parents in responding to the diverse emotional and behavioral needs of adopted children. This approach facilitates a smoother transition for the child and lays the foundation for a solid and loving family identity.

Daily Transformations on the Path of Adoption

This subcategory explores how the arrival of an adopted child affects the daily routines and habits of families, highlighting the adjustments and strategies adopted to manage these changes. Families describe their experiences adapting to new responsibilities and how they structure their days to facilitate the transition for all family members.

Integrating a new member into the family involves a significant reorganization of daily life. Families use various strategies to manage this transition, from creating stable routines to assigning and adapting roles within the household.

Stability through Routines. F1 emphasizes the importance of maintaining a stable routine to generate security for the child: “We obviously try to keep the routine as stable as possible because we also noticed that it generates security”. This observation underlines how consistent routines can be crucial for children, especially in an adoption context where emotional stability is vital. Additionally, it mentions how responsibilities are divided and adapted over time: “We have very evenly divided the functions of each one, and each one has naturally taken on a parenting role”.

Routines as Allies. According to F2, structure and predictability are particularly valuable: “We are very routine-oriented; we have a very marked routine during the week... routines have been a tremendous ally”. This anticipation strategy helps the child organize their environment and cope with new situations, facilitating adaptation and providing a sense of control and predictability.

Coordination and Family Autonomy. F3 describes a well-coordinated system that promotes the children’s autonomy: “We get up at 7 a.m., they dress themselves, I prepare breakfast... they are very independent”. This quote reveals how, through collaboration and clear turns between parents, children learn to actively participate in daily tasks, which not only helps family logistics but also fosters independence and self-confidence in the children.

This subcategory highlights how adoptive families restructure their lives to incorporate their new members. The narratives reflect a conscious effort to create stable and predictable environments that support adopted children’s emotional and physical development while adapting to the challenges and rewards of parenting. Through the creation of routines and the adaptation of roles, these families work to build a new sense of normalcy that accommodates and celebrates the arrival of their children, reinforcing family cohesion and love.

Weaving the Story: The Impact of the Adoption Process on Couple Relationships

This subcategory explores how adoption impacts couple relationships, focusing on changes in dynamics and the need to adapt to new roles as parents while attempting to maintain and strengthen the relationship as a couple. The families share how they manage the balance between their relational needs and the demands of parenting.

The arrival of an adopted child introduces new dynamics and challenges that couples must navigate, affecting their time together, communication, and mutual support.

Managing Time and Personal Space. According to F1, managing time becomes crucial to maintaining a healthy relationship: “The earlier he goes to bed, the more space we also have for ourselves because, honestly, the week gets heavy”. This quote highlights the importance of having dedicated time for the couple to rest and reconnect, facilitated by extended family support who occasionally look after the child.

Integration and Separation. F2 describes how they have integrated their daughter into their daily lives without completely losing their space as a couple: “On Fridays, when E falls asleep, it’s our time to watch a movie just for us”. The couple strives to maintain certain routines that allow them to have moments together, ensuring there are also times when they can enjoy time alone, entrusting the child’s care to a trusted family member.

Communication and Discovery of New Roles. F3 focuses on the importance of communication during the transition to parenthood: “We had already done everything practically together; we knew each other perfectly, so we just didn’t know each other in the role of parents, and that was the process of discovering... it was key to verbalize what was happening to me”. This experience emphasizes how adoption can be an opportunity for couples to know each other in a new context, learn to communicate effectively, and support each other in their evolution as parents.

Thus, this subcategory reveals how couples adapt their lives to include their adopted children while striving to preserve and nurture their relationships. The narratives highlight the need to balance caring for the child and nurturing the couple’s relationship, using strategies such as time management, extended family support, careful integration of family routines, and open and honest communication. This approach strengthens the couple’s relationship and establishes a stable and loving family environment for the adopted child.

3.3.4. Hopes and Challenges: Perspectives on Adoption in the Chilean Context

This category explores the experiences and aspirations of families who have undergone the adoption process, highlighting the challenges they faced and opportunities for improving the system. We begin with “Post-Adoption Daily Narratives”, discussing the lack of post-adoption support and the need for effective follow-up. This establishes the context for the next subcategory, “What is expected for the future? Proposals and advancements for the adoption process in Chile”, which presents families’ proposals for reforms to address these gaps and promote a more equitable and humane adoption system. Together, these subcategories provide a comprehensive overview of Chile’s current challenges and future hopes for adoption.

Post-Adoption Daily Narratives

This subcategory addresses the experiences of adoptive families during the post-adoption period, focusing on the perceived abandonment due to the lack of institutional follow-up and support. Families express the need for more resources and guidance to manage the transition and ensure the effective integration of the child into their new home. The lack of structured support after adoption emerges as a recurring theme, highlighting a critical area where the adoption system could significantly improve to support families and children.

Expectation vs. Reality in Post-Adoption Follow-Up. F1 illustrates disappointment with the lack of follow-up: “At some point, we did expect that after the adoption process, there would be follow-up... it would have been very appropriate to have had a professional who would have said, look, this is normal, this will happen, this is how it is”. This quote emphasizes the critical need for professional guidance during the adaptation phase, especially to normalize and contextualize families’ challenges.

Concerns About Child Safety and Well-Being. F2’s reflection on the absence of post-adoption monitoring reveals deep concerns about the safety and well-being of adopted children: “To this day, no one has monitored us... and if I were to hit her? And if I didn’t have her right now? no one is checking that I have her”. This comment criticizes the lack of supervision and highlights a concern that other adopted children might be in less favorable situations without the system detecting it.

The Need for Formal and Experiential Accompaniment. F3 advocates for a more structured support system: “But there is no formal accompaniment... a technical team, with experience that can accompany you in psychotherapeutic processes or families that share experiences”. This need reflects the importance of having both professional and community support, where families can learn from each other and receive assistance tailored to their specific needs.

Thus, a significant gap in Chile’s adoption system, especially regarding post-adoption support, is highlighted. The narratives suggest that adequate follow-up and support programs are not only necessary to address the practical and emotional challenges of adoption but also essential to ensure the continuous well-being and safety of adopted children. Implementing a more robust and sensitive system could significantly transform the adoption experience for families and promote more positive outcomes for children.

What Is Expected for the Future? Proposals and Advancements for the Adoption Process in Chile

This subcategory addresses the perspectives and suggestions of adoptive families on improving the adoption process in Chile, focusing on personal experiences that highlight both the current shortcomings and potential advancements in equity and human rights.

Families provide valuable proposals based on their experiences, identifying key areas where the adoption system could be reformed to be more inclusive, fair, and supportive.

Education and Reducing Prejudices. F1 highlights the need for better education and awareness about adoption: “Informing or educating around the issue, I think there is still a lot of prejudice”. This quote underscores how the lack of information contributes to perpetuating stigmas and prejudices that can discourage potential adoptive families or make the process more difficult for those who decide to adopt.

Inclusion and Legal Recognition. F2 criticizes current policies that, despite some progress like same-sex marriage, still leave many families at a disadvantage or facing indirect discrimination: “that they did not consider C immediately as the other mom, terrible, and that later she had to be recognized”. This experience highlights how legal and administrative structures can be insufficient or inadequate for the realities of all families, especially non-traditional ones.

Post-Adoption Support and Accompaniment. F3 draws attention to the lack of structural support and accompaniment programs for families after adoption: “the accompaniment process that does not exist, there are no family programs”. This observation is critical in highlighting the need for ongoing support, especially for families adopting children with special needs, who often face great challenges without adequate support from the State.

Therefore, while there are advances in legislation and social perception of adoption, multiple areas still require urgent attention and substantial improvements. Adoptive families are in a unique position to offer valuable insights into how the system can be reformed to better serve both children and adoptive families. These proposals include greater public education and awareness, legal reforms to ensure inclusion and recognition, and the development of support and accompaniment programs that ensure all families have the resources needed to facilitate a successful and healthy transition.

4. Discussion

The results of this qualitative study offer a deep insight into the complex dynamics surrounding the adoption process in Chile. By examining the experiences of adoptive families across different categories, it reveals how market structures and personal preferences can influence the process while also highlighting the emotional and practical challenges families face during and after adoption. This analysis also provides concrete proposals for improving the adoption system and promoting greater equity and support for the children and families involved.

The study reveals that the adoption process in Chile is permeated by a market logic, where children are often perceived as “offers” and families as “consumers”. This market-oriented perspective not only perpetuates inequalities but can also lead to implicit or explicit discrimination in the selection of adoptable children, as seen in the preferences for certain physical characteristics or family backgrounds (F1, F2, F3). Such an approach can limit adoption opportunities for many children and underscores the need for reforms that promote a more equitable, child-centered perspective.

The notion of a “consumption logic” in adoption refers to how the process can resemble a market transaction, where families seek the “best fit” to meet their specific desires and needs. This phenomenon is not exclusive to Chile; research has also documented this trend in other contexts. For example, Marre and Briggs explore how international adoptions can be viewed through a consumer lens, where children from certain backgrounds are considered more “desirable” than others due to factors like race, ethnicity, or health status [28], like other studies [29]. These studies demonstrate that families often express preferences like those observed in this Chilean study, such as the child’s race, eye color, or health background (as highlighted in the narratives of F1 and F2).

In the Chilean context, these preferences reinforce a market logic and perpetuate systemic inequalities [30]. As seen in the narratives of the interviewed families, personal preferences and expectations can lead to the exclusion of certain children from the adoption process, particularly those who do not meet the “desired characteristics”. The quote from F2, describing how certain questions about the child’s origin or physical characteristics can make families uncomfortable, reflects the tension between families’ desire to form a genuine emotional bond and the realities of a system that facilitates the commodification of children.

This market-oriented approach to the adoption process raises serious equity and social justice concerns. By treating children as “goods” that can be selected based on specific characteristics, the system risks perpetuating stereotypes and discriminating against children who do not fit market “desirability” standards. Previous research, such as that by Agoglia et al. [31], suggests that this logic can result in the exclusion of older children, those with special needs, or those from certain ethnic backgrounds from adoption opportunities, leaving these children without permanent families and negatively impacting their long-term development and well-being.

Additionally, the consumption logic can undermine fundamental principles of social justice, which advocate for equal opportunities for all children, regardless of their background or characteristics. According to different authors [31,32,33], an adoption system based on social justice should focus on the child’s well-being and the creation of a safe and loving family environment rather than the satisfaction of specific desires of adoptive families.

The category “Experiences and Trajectories in the Adoption Process” analysis focuses on the emotional experiences and personal journeys of adoptive families during the adoption process in Chile. Through their narratives, families share the challenges they face and the strategies they use to establish emotional bonds with adopted children. This discussion illuminates the complexities of the adoption process and highlights the importance of continuous and adaptive institutional support to facilitate a successful transition to family life.

The narratives of adoptive families highlight a range of emotional experiences and challenges accompanying the adoption process. For example, F1 and F2 mention the importance of maintaining stable routines to create a sense of security in adopted children. This strategy is crucial to facilitate the child’s adjustment to the new family environment and foster the development of emotional bonds. The literature supports this idea; recent research shows that stability and predictability are fundamental for adopted children, especially those with a history of trauma or neglect. Different authors argue that stable routines and a predictable environment help children develop trust and security in their new family [34,35].

On the other hand, F3 describes the difficulties in establishing bonds under adverse circumstances, such as emotional dysregulation and the child’s initial rejection of the new parents. These challenges are common in adoptions of older children or those with significant trauma histories. According to Lloyd [36], children who have experienced multiple changes in care or have been exposed to severe trauma may have difficulty trusting new caregivers, which can manifest in challenging behaviors or initial resistance to bonding.

Adoptive families employ various strategies to foster attachment and emotional bonding with their adopted children. In the case of F1, close physical contact and the repetition of affectionate behaviors are emphasized to build a shared family identity and strengthen the bond. This strategy aligns with studies suggesting that positive interactions and frequent physical contact are essential for developing a secure attachment [32].

Similarly, F2 highlights the use of “anticipation” as a strategy to manage expectations and reduce anxiety in the adopted child. This technique, which involves preparing the child for changes or future events, is supported by developmental psychology research, indicating that anticipation and structure can help children feel more secure and less anxious, facilitating adaptation to new situations [37].

Adopting children with special needs or challenging histories adds an additional layer of complexity, requiring not only great resilience from adoptive parents but also continuous institutional support. The narrative of F3, describing the challenges of managing their adopted daughter’s severe emotional dysregulation, underscores the need for specialized interventions and professional support. This need is consistent with recent literature advocating a multidisciplinary approach to supporting adoptive families, particularly those facing challenges related to adopting children with special needs [38,39].

On the other hand, the adoption process introduces significant changes in family dynamics, affecting both daily routines and the structure of roles within the couple. This category explores how adoptive families must adapt to manage the transition to parenthood, finding a balance between maintaining their identity as a couple and meeting the demands of caring for an adopted child. The narratives from the families in the study (F1, F2, F3) illustrate the need for constant adaptation and effective communication to face these challenges.

The arrival of an adopted child can radically reshape the daily life of a family. Daily routines need to be adjusted to accommodate the child’s needs, often involving a reorganization of time and responsibilities between the couple’s members. F1, for example, mentions the importance of establishing stable routines to provide a sense of security for both the child and the couple. This finding aligns with others, which suggests that consistent family routines are essential for promoting stability and well-being in adoptive families, especially during the early post-adoption years [32,35].

F2 highlights the creation of dedicated spaces for the couple, such as moments to watch a movie together after the child falls asleep, reflecting the need to maintain their connection as a couple while fulfilling parental responsibilities. This type of relationship maintenance strategy aligns with the research by Grotevant and McDermott [40], who found that adoptive couples who take time to nurture their relationship report higher levels of satisfaction and less stress related to parenting.

Adoption also implies a reconfiguration of traditional gender roles and expectations within the couple. In F3, participants point out how the adoption process was a “discovery” of new parental roles they had not previously explored. This experience of mutual learning and role redefinition is fundamental for couple cohesion, as both members must adapt to their new identities as parents. According to different studies, adoptive couples often face unique challenges in the transition to parenthood, and success in this transition largely depends on the parents’ ability to renegotiate their roles and responsibilities in an equitable and flexible manner [38,41].

Continuous adaptation and open communication are crucial for managing the challenges that arise in adoptive families. F3 emphasizes the importance of “verbalizing what was happening to me”, indicating that open communication is key to managing changing emotions and expectations in the couple’s relationship. The literature also supports this assertion; according to Lucas et al. [42], couples who practice open and honest communication report better adaptation to adoptive parenting and greater relationship satisfaction.

Additionally, the need to balance childcare demands with maintaining a healthy couple relationship is reflected in F2’s experience, which emphasizes the importance of finding time for the couple, even when childcare demands are high. This experience aligns with the findings of Gianino [43], which suggest that the ability of adoptive parents to maintain their identity as a couple and not just as parents is crucial for overall family well-being.

In addition to changes in routines and roles, adoption can also affect the mental health and relational dynamics of the couple. Adoption can be a significant source of stress, especially if adopted children have special needs or behavioral challenges. F1 mentions the “heaviness” of the week and the need for separate time for the couple, underscoring the importance of managing stress to maintain a healthy relationship. According to different studies, the stress associated with adoption can negatively impact marital satisfaction, but this impact can be mitigated through the development of effective coping strategies and access to support resources [32,41,43].

Finally, the reflections of adoptive families highlight the need for structural change in the Chilean adoption system. The lack of post-adoption follow-up and formal support is a recurring concern, suggesting a significant gap in the services provided (F1, F2, F3). Proposals include implementing accompaniment programs, improving public education about adoption, and legal reforms to ensure fair and equal treatment for all families.The experiences of adoptive families in Chile reveal a significant gap in post-adoption follow-up and formal support. F1 expresses common frustration over the lack of professional accompaniment after adoption, which could have provided important guidance in navigating the transition and the emotional challenges faced by both parents and children. This concern aligns with recent studies highlighting the importance of post-adoption support to promote family stability and well-being. According to McRoy [44], post-adoption follow-up programs are essential to help families face unexpected challenges and ensure that adoptions are stable and successful in the long term.

This is particularly relevant considering that the experiences of adoptive families vary significantly depending on the cultural context and the individual circumstances of each adopted child. While some families face challenges related to adaptation and integration, others may encounter more complex situations, such as ingrained behaviors stemming from prior traumatic experiences. For instance, Palacios and Brodzinsky [45] highlighted that adopted children may exhibit emotional and behavioral problems resulting from adverse early experiences, underscoring the need for specific interventions to address these difficulties. Additionally, Sánchez-Sandoval and Palacios [46] found that adopted children, on average, exhibit more emotional and behavioral problems than their non-adopted peers, emphasizing the importance of continuous and specialized professional support for adoptive families. Public policies and adoption programs must recognize this diversity of experiences and provide adequate resources to address the challenges that may arise during the adoption process and subsequent adaptation.

F2 and F3 reinforce this concern, pointing out that the lack of monitoring can leave children vulnerable in situations where their well-being is not guaranteed. Penner [47] has also noted that post-adoption interventions, such as family counseling and behavioral therapy, can help prevent adjustment problems in adopted children, especially those with a history of trauma or special needs. The lack of a comprehensive support system can result in negative outcomes for children and families, emphasizing the need to improve post-adoption services in Chile.

The narratives of adoptive families underscore the need for policy reforms that ensure fair and equal treatment for all families, regardless of their composition or background. F2, for example, criticizes current policies that still leave many families, especially non-traditional ones, at a disadvantage or facing indirect discrimination. This experience resonates with the findings of Goldberg and Smith [48], who found that adoption policies that discriminate against families based on their structure or composition not only violate principles of social justice but also limit the number of safe and loving homes available for children in need.F3 advocates for the implementation of a more inclusive and equitable system that considers the specific needs of all families, including LGBTQ+ families, single parents, and low-income families. Research by Farr et al. [49] supports this stance, highlighting that non-traditional families are just as capable as heterosexual, married families of providing safe and nurturing environments. Legal reforms that recognize and support this diversity can contribute to a more inclusive and fair adoption system.

Another key area for improvement identified by the families is the need for better public education and awareness about adoption. F1 points out that misinformation and prejudice persist despite legislative advances such as marriage equality. This highlights the importance of educational programs that inform the public about adoption and reduce associated stigmas.

5. Conclusions

This qualitative study has thoroughly explored the experiences and perceptions of adoptive families in Chile, revealing a range of challenges and opportunities for improving the adoption system in the country. Through the categories discussed—from market dynamics and personal preferences to emotional experiences and trajectories, the impact of adoption on family dynamics, and perspectives on necessary reforms—clear patterns emerge that underscore the need for a structural change in Chile’s adoption approach.

The findings highlight how the market logic, where children are seen as “offers” and families as “consumers”, perpetuates inequalities and can lead to implicit or explicit discrimination in the selection of adoptable children. This approach limits adoption opportunities for many children and challenges the fundamental principles of social justice. An alternative approach could include policies and practices that minimize opportunities for families’ personal preferences to influence the selection of children. For example, adoption systems in some European countries, such as the United Kingdom, use “matching” processes that prioritize the child’s needs over family preferences, emphasizing the importance of emotional stability and cultural fit over characteristics like race or age [50].

On the other hand, the emotional experiences and personal trajectories of adoptive families show the importance of emotional bonding strategies and continuous institutional support to facilitate successful integration into the new family. Despite the importance of family strategies to foster attachment and manage challenges, families often require external support, such as counseling programs, parent support groups, and early intervention services for children. Furthermore, adoption significantly impacts family dynamics, requiring changes in daily routines, constant adaptation, and redefinition of roles within the couple.

Finally, the reflections of adoptive families underline a clear need for reform in Chile’s adoption system. The lack of post-adoption follow-up, the need for greater public education on adoption, and the implementation of support programs are critical areas that require immediate attention. Families propose creating support programs that provide continuous support both before and after adoption. These programs could include psychological counseling, occupational therapy, adoptive parent support groups, and educational resources on child development and parenting.

Hence, a critical takeaway from this study is the urgent need for a more robust and comprehensive post-adoption support system in Chile. Such programs could play a pivotal role in addressing the emotional, social, and practical challenges that adoptive families face, particularly those stemming from the unique needs of adopted children. As Palacios and Brodzinsky [45] highlighted, children who have experienced adverse early environments often require specialized interventions to facilitate their adjustment and development. Post-adoption support programs should include accessible counseling services, peer support networks, and training for adoptive parents to equip them with strategies for managing complex behaviors and fostering healthy family dynamics. By prioritizing the creation and implementation of these supports, policymakers and adoption agencies can ensure greater stability and well-being for adoptive families while also reinforcing the success and sustainability of adoption as a social institution.

Lastly, to improve the well-being of all children and families involved in the adoption process, it is essential to develop a more inclusive, equitable, and child-centered system that ensures fair and equal treatment for all families.

6. Study Limitations

This study presents several limitations that should be acknowledged when interpreting the findings. Firstly, the sample consists of a limited number of adoptive families, which may not represent the diversity of experiences of all adoptive families in Chile. The selection of participants was based on the availability and willingness of families to participate, which may have introduced a self-selection bias, limiting the generalizability of the results.

Another limitation of this study is that no official census in Chile provides data on the proportion of male vs. female same-sex couples or systematic information about the duration of their relationships. We acknowledge that this lack of data represents an important limitation for the study, as these elements could enrich the context and understanding of the experiences of same-sex families in the country. Although this article addresses the experiences of same-sex families in general, this absence of information highlights the need for future research to more comprehensively examine the demographic and temporal dynamics of these families in Chile.

Moreover, this study focused on families who adopted one or two children and did not have children in their households prior to adoption. While this allowed for an exploration of experiences in households without pre-existing parenting dynamics, it did not address the specific challenges that might arise in contexts where children were already present, such as issues of identity or jealousy. Additionally, the study did not include families adopting large sibling groups, which can present unique challenges, such as managing complex relationships and emotional demands. These limitations highlight that the findings should not be generalized to families with pre-existing children or those adopting large groups of siblings, as these scenarios likely involve distinct dynamics and require further investigation.

Finally, the research does not comprehensively address the perspectives of other stakeholders involved in the adoption process, such as healthcare professionals, social workers, or the adopted children themselves, which could provide a more complete view of the needs and challenges of the adoption system in Chile.

Future studies could address these limitations by including a larger and more diverse sample, using mixed methods that combine qualitative and quantitative approaches, and incorporating the perspectives of a broader range of stakeholders to offer a more holistic understanding of the adoption process and its impacts.