Factors Impacting Perceptions of Gender Inequality in the Spanish Society

Abstract

This study uses Ordinary Least Squares Multiple Regression with data on perceptions regarding gender equality from the Spanish general population. Overall, the results indicate that perceptions of equal treatment under the law and equality in political life are significantly associated with perceptions of gender equality. However, perceptions of discrimination in education do not seem to affect perceptions of gender equality significantly. In addition, the results show a clear association between the belief that gender equality leads to a fairer society and the perception of gender equality itself. Results also suggest that while certain perceptions related to the law, society, and political life are instrumental in shaping views on gender inequality, there remains a foundational level of perceived inequality in Spanish society. As a concluding remark, when examining the impact of female representation in leadership positions, the results provide empirical support that the presence of women in leadership positions improves the perception of gender equity in the contexts in which it occurs; this fact reflects the importance of promoting the participation of women in management positions through public policies.

1. Introduction

Gender gap analysis is fundamental to understanding the disparities that exist between genders in various aspects of society, such as income, employment opportunities, representation in leadership roles, and access to education and health. This approach not only highlights prevailing inequalities, but also guides the development of policies and strategies to promote gender equality. By examining the roots and manifestations of the gender gap, we can identify critical areas for intervention, thus ensuring the creation of a more just and equitable society for all its members. However, there are still disparities such as the representation of women in leadership positions, or gender salary gaps, but Spanish society is making a real effort to change this situation; for example, in the use of sexist language in law [1] or in the modeling of Artificial Intelligence [2], as well as in educational communities [3]. To ensure effective gender equality in Spain, in March 2022, the Spanish Council of Ministers approved the III Strategic Plan for the Effective Equality of Women and Men 2022–2025 [4]. The plan is aligned with the objectives of the 2030 Agenda, the relevant Council of Europe Conventions and the European Strategy for Gender Equality 2020–2025, and is the most important national action plan on gender equality implemented in Spain to date [5]. In this sense, this study is an additional piece of all those necessary to make evident the areas where there may still be a perception of inequality between men and women, so that, in this way, it contributes to decision-making that will lead to effective equality between genders. Accordingly, this research addresses the perception of gender equality in Spanish society, with a particular focus on evaluations raised by the presence of (i) legal policies; (ii) access to education; (iii) fairer social policies; and (iv) the presence of women in leadership positions within public organizations.

Studies such as those of Wang et al. [6] have highlighted the critical relevance of legal awareness and adherence to gender equality principles, showing that legal education enhances resistance to discriminatory situations at work. This evidence is complemented by Jiang and Lo [7], who identified that the perception of well-developed legislation improves confidence in equality by law, suggesting a close relationship between the enactment of fair laws and the perception of legal equality. In addition, the increase in female representation within public organizations, such as law enforcement, according to Riccucci and Van Ryin [8], not only increases trust in institutions but also strengthens perceptions of justice and equity in society. However, the variability of these perceptions among different communities is notable, as indicated by Franklin et al. [9] in their study on African American students’ trust in the law, which is influenced by media representations and personal experiences. In terms of education, the literature has highlighted that perceived experience during different stages of education has an impact on how gender equality is viewed in the societies studied [10].

This body of research provides a solid basis for exploring how perceptions of equal application of the law, discrimination in education, the establishment of fair social policies and female representation in leadership roles influence perceptions of gender equality in Spanish society. The rationale for the study is rooted in the need to understand these complex dynamics and their impact on the perception of the gender gap, highlighting the relevance of addressing both legal and cultural and social structures to promote a more equal society.

The methodology used in this study, based on a secondary analysis of the survey “Perceptions of gender equality and gender stereotypes” applied to Spanish citizens, allows for an in-depth exploration of these dynamics. The results of the multiple linear regression model reveal that both the perception of equal application of the law and female representation in leadership positions are intrinsically linked to a greater perception of gender equality. These findings not only validate the importance of gender equality policies for society, but also emphasize the significant impact of representation and legislation on public perceptions of gender equality.

2. Theoretical Framework

Gender equality and its perception in legal and business contexts is a key field of study for understanding equity dynamics in society. Recent research has highlighted the importance of perceptions in assessing and addressing gender inequality, especially in the area of women’s entrepreneurship and regarding representation in leadership positions [11]. Thus, some studies [6] highlight the critical relevance of the development of a legal awareness that guarantees the principles of gender equality to perception of equality. Women who are legally educated and perceive laws to be equitable have a greater tendency to resist discriminatory situations at work. This evidence aligns with findings from other studies [7], which identified that perceptions of robust legislation improve trust in equality under the law among university students, suggesting a strong relationship between the adoption of fair laws and perceptions of legal justice. In addition, other research has shown that increasing female representation within law enforcement not only increases trust in these institutions but also strengthens perceptions of justice and fairness in society [8].

Nonetheless, the variability of these perceptions between different communities is noteworthy. For example, it has been observed that media representations and personal experiences influence African American students’ trust in the law. [9]. Regarding women’s leadership in higher education institutions, a study with managers in Vietnam [12] highlighted the role of internal policies and regulations in promoting equal opportunities for women and the consequent reduction in the gender gap. In the labor context, studies have found a positive correlation between equitable laws related to women and better results in terms of gender equality in the labor market [13]. However, other studies [14] note the gap between mere legislation and its real effects at the organizational level, indicating that the existence of laws is not enough per se to ensure the perception of gender equality, which implies the need for applying policy changes and action plans at multiple levels.

Together with perceptions of egalitarian policies in law, perceptions of discrimination in access to education are crucial in shaping perceptions of gender equality. Studies indicate that educational experiences significantly influence perceptions of gender equality. Thus, equitable educational experiences foster greater awareness and acceptance of gender equality [10]. In addition, the literature has demonstrated the importance of addressing discriminatory practices rooted in social and organizational structures, emphasizing the need for policies based on substantive equality and non-discrimination to counteract gender discrimination in various contexts, such as health care [15]. Applied to the field of education, reducing the perception of discrimination in women’s access to education could have a significant influence on improving the perception of gender equality.

In conclusion, the literature reviewed argues for a relationship between perceived discrimination in women’s access to education and overall perceptions of gender equality. Additionally, the perception of equitable law enforcement is intrinsically linked to a greater perception of gender equality. Legal education, female representation in leadership roles, and effective implementation of equitable laws are essential to foster this perception and, thus, for the development of more equitable societies.

Hypothesis 1a (H1a):

Perception that the application of the law is equal for everyone is associated with a higher perception of gender equality.

Hypothesis 1b (H1b):

The lower the perception of discrimination in women’s access to education, the higher the perception of gender equality.

Perceptions of gender equality have been shown to be related to broader societal values and beliefs about fairness and equity. A number of papers have explored the connection between gender discriminatory practices and perceptions of fairness on issues such as taxation, highlighting how social and economic structures affect perceptions of equality along gender lines [16]. It also delved into how different groups perceive social risks based on gender and context, broadening the understanding of gender equality from risk and safety perspectives [17]. Some studies have shed light on how interpersonal and organizational factors influence perceptions of equality, offering insights into interpersonal and organizational dynamics in the promotion of gender equality [18]. Specifically, they have analyzed how policies linked to social justice can affect citizens’ perceptions. Under the lens of this study, in particular, are perceptions of gender equality.

Thus, the importance of public narrative has been emphasized, suggesting that supporting the perception of a fairer society through gender equality can have a positive impact on the overall perception of gender equality [11]. In addition, it has been examined how crises, such as COVID-19, can exacerbate pre-existing inequalities, negatively affecting the perception of gender equality [19].

This research provides a strong basis for supporting the hypothesis that a greater perception that gender equality contributes to a more just society is linked to a greater perception of gender equality.

Hypothesis 2 (H2):

The higher the perception that equality between men and women contributes to a fairer society, the greater the perception of gender equality.

The gender gap and the presence of women in politics has also been the subject of study by various studies [20]. First, the literature has shown that perceptions of gender equality can affect people’s political interest as a function of their gender and age [21], suggesting that a perception of equality in promotions within political careers could influence broader perceptions of gender equality. Thus, the existence of invisible barriers, such as the glass ceiling, which prevents women from reaching senior management positions, contributes to a predominantly male leadership dominance, suggesting that perceptions of equality in promotions are distorted [22].

For that reason, misinterpreted or overlooked gender equality objectives during policy implementation can lead to a false sense of achievement in addressing gender issues, affecting the overall perception of gender equality in political life [23]. In fact, the presence of women in positions of political responsibility can have a significant impact on the adoption and implementation of public policies related to sustainability and green procurement, underlining how gender equality in politics and administration can positively influence the quality and direction of political decision-making [24] and, thus, demonstrates the relevance of knowing its effects.

Other studies have revealed how gender inequalities in politics are not only a question of access to office, but also of how power is exercised once in office, showing that women are less likely than men to secure the position of highest local power (e.g., mayor) even if their political parties are part of the ruling coalition [25]. This research collectively suggests that a greater perception of equality in promotion to positions of responsibility in political life is associated with a greater perception of gender equality, justifying the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 3 (H3):

The higher the perception of equality in the promotion to positions of responsibility in political life, the greater the perception of gender equality. This study aims to strengthen all these hypotheses in the Spanish context. To this end, the methodology, sample, and results are described below.

3. Materials and Methods

This research is based on a secondary analysis of the “Perceptions about equality between men and women and gender stereotypes” survey [26] carried out amongst Spanish citizens aged 16 and older; the survey sampling was representative of the national population. The survey encompasses various questions addressing societal issues such as law application fairness, gender-based preferences in society, discrimination, and sexism, and explores public opinions on gender-related topics. Although the database contained a sample of 4005 observations, after removing all the answers corresponding with ‘do not know’ or ‘did not answer’, the number valid of observations was reduced to 3895 (1935 women and 1960 men); the dataset is available at [27].

Table 1. Original definitions of variables. Descriptive statistics after inverting the variables.

			Percentages (Inverted Variables)
Variable	Original Definition	Type	0	1	2	3	4	5
gen_ineq_now	Regarding the situation of women in Spain, how would you rate the inequalities that exist between men and women in our country: almost nonexistent, small, quite large, very large?	Likert	-	17	34.9	60.1	21	-
cl_eq_law H1a	Do you believe that in Spain, when applying the laws, everyone is treated the same (0), or are there differences depending on who it concerns (1)?	Binary (0, 1)	74.8	25.2	-	-	-	-
gen_w_access_edu H1b	Do you believe that currently, the situation of women in Spain is worse, the same, or better than that of men in access to education?	Likert	-	5.8	82.7	11.1	-	-
gen_equ_better_society H2	Do you completely disagree (1) or completely agree (5) that equality between men and women contributes to a fairer society?	Likert	-	0.8	1.6	0.2	18.4	79
gen_w_politic H3	Do you think that currently the situation of women in Spain is worse, equal, or better than that of men when it comes to accessing positions of responsibility in political life?	Likert	-	46	53.7	16	-	-

Note: For the analysis, the scales were inverted, so that lower values in the Likert scale mean “strongly-disagree” and higher values mean “strongly-agree”. Translation of the questions by the authors.

shows the variables related to the hypothesis testing of this research, their definitions, and descriptive statistics. For the analysis, the scales were inverted, so that lower values mean “strongly disagree” and higher values mean “strongly agree”.

The data analysis was carried out using an ordinary least squares multiple regression (OLS) model using, as a dependent variable, the Likert-type scale gen_ineq_now, Table 1, on the level of agreement or disagreement regarding the following statement: “Regarding the situation of women in Spain, how would you rate the inequalities that exist between men and women in our country: almost nonexistent, small, quite large, very large?”.

The OLS model used for the analysis is in Equation (1) can be seen as follows:

gen_ineq_now = cl_eq_law + gen_w_access_edu + gen_equ_better_society + gen_w_politic

(1)

where cl_eq_law is the perception of equality in the application of the laws (Binary variable 0, 1). The independent variable gen_w_access_edu is a Likert type scale; the situation of women in Spain is worse, the same, or better, than that of men in access to education; gen_equ_better_society analyzes if equality between men and women contributes to a fairer society; gen_w_politic measures if men and women have equal opportunities to develop a political career. Table 1 depicts the definition of the variables and the descriptive statistics.

Although the use of the OLS model with discrete quantitative variables has certain risks in the interpretation of the data, we have considered these to be much lower than those involved in the use of other alternatives, such as multiple logistic regressions, which provide results in terms of probabilities, or other methods such as neural networks that provide results that are difficult to interpret in the social sciences and which also have the well-known problem of being perceived as a “black box”.

4. Results

The results of the OLS model are detailed in

Table 2. Results of the OLS model.

Variable	Estimate	SE	t Value	p Value
(Intercept)	2.678	0.138	19.335	<2 × 10−16	***
cl_eq_law (H1a)	−0.177	0.034	−5.176	2.40 × 10−7	***
gen_w_access_edu (H1b)	0.003	0.039	0.064	0.949
gen_equ_better_society (H2)	0.141	0.023	6.186	6.95 × 10−10	***
gen_w_politic (H3)	−0.379	0.023	−16.214	<2 × 10−16	***

Note: Signif. codes: 0 ‘***’ 0.001. Residual standard error: 0.847 on 3237 degrees of freedom. Multiple R²: 0.1074, adjusted R²: 0.1063. F-statistic: 97.39 on 4 and 3237 DF, p-value: <2.2 × 10⁻¹⁶.

. The intercept of 2.678 could be interpreted as the baseline level of perceived gender inequality when all other variables are at their reference level (which, for categorical variables, is often the category coded as “0”). The high t-value and the extremely low p-value indicate that this baseline perception of gender inequality is significantly different from zero, suggesting a perceived baseline level of gender inequality in Spain.

The binary variable cl_eq_law corresponds to H1a, where “0” indicates the belief that the laws are applied equally to everyone, and “1” suggests perceived differences in the application of laws. The negative coefficient (−0.177) with a very small p-value (2.40 × 10⁻⁷) indicates that believing in unequal application of laws (value “1”) is associated with a higher perception of gender inequality, suggesting that perceived fairness in the application of laws is associated with perceived gender equality. Most respondents (74.8%) believe the laws are applied equally, suggesting that the 25.2% who perceive inequality could have perceivably felt its effects.

The variable gen_w_access_edu (H1b) captures beliefs about the comparative situation of women’s access to education. The coefficient (0.003) is not statistically significant (p-value: 0.949), indicating that, within this model, perceptions of gender inequality are not strongly associated with views on educational access. This lack of significance could be due to actual equal access to education between genders in Spain; in fact, most respondents (82.7%) believe the situation is the same, which may be why this variable does not significantly predict perceptions of gender inequality.

The variable gen_equ_better_society, corresponding to H2, measures agreement with the statement that gender equality contributes to a fairer society. The positive and significant coefficient (0.141) suggests that stronger agreement is associated with a higher perception of gender inequality. Most respondents (79%) strongly agree with the statement, indicating that as people more strongly agree that gender equality is important for a fair society, there exists a belief that despite acknowledging the importance of gender equality, society has not yet achieved this ideal and that there is still work to be done.

The variable gen_w_politic (H3) measures perceptions of women’s position in political life. The negative and significant coefficient (−0.379) suggests that perceptions of women being in a worse position politically are associated with higher perceptions of gender inequality. This indicates that political representation and empowerment are considered key areas in which gender inequality is manifested in Spanish society. Almost half of the respondents (46%) believe women are worse off, which might explain the strong negative association with perceptions of gender inequality.

In summary:

• H1a is supported, as perceptions of unequal application of the law are associated with higher perceptions of gender inequality.
• H1b is not supported by the data, suggesting that perceptions of discrimination in education do not have a significant impact on perceptions of gender inequality within this sample.
• H2 is strongly supported, indicating that belief in the positive societal impact of gender equality correlates with lower perceptions of gender inequality.
• H3 is also supported, demonstrating that perceptions of women’s political empowerment are significantly associated with perceptions of gender equality.

In conclusion, the regression model reveals that beliefs about the societal impact of gender equality and the political empowerment of women are significant factors in shaping perceptions of gender inequality in Spain. The lack of significance for education-related discrimination suggests that other factors not included in this model may influence perceptions in this area. Despite the limitations of the model, as indicated by the R-squared value, the significant variables provide valuable insights into the societal and political dimensions that are most influential in public perceptions of gender inequality.

5. Discussion and Conclusions

This study explores the perceptions of gender inequality in Spain, focusing on legal equality, education access, societal beliefs about gender equality and fairness, and political representation. The highly significant intercept suggests that while certain perceptions related to the law, society, and political life are instrumental in shaping views on gender inequality, there remains a foundational level of perceived inequality. This intrinsic perception could be rooted in historical, cultural, or structural aspects of gender relations in Spain that persist even when specific egalitarian views are accounted for. The significant predictors in the model—particularly the negative view of the law’s application and women’s political representation, alongside the positive view of gender equality’s societal value—indicate key areas where public sentiment and policy could focus to address and improve the overall perception of gender equality.

The negative coefficient for H1a suggests that skepticism towards the fairness of law application decreases perceived gender inequality slightly. The lack of significance of H1b suggests that perceptions of gender equality in educational access do not have a substantial impact on the overall perception of gender inequality in Spain; this could be explained by the high percentage of respondents who believe that the situation is the same for men and women in terms of access to education. This predominant perception of equality in educational access might neutralize any significant effect of this variable on the overall perception of gender inequality. This finding suggests that, to address overall perceptions of gender inequality, it is crucial to consider other more influential factors, such as political representation and the equitable application of the law. The positive relationship in H2 implies that as the agreement with gender equality contributing to a fairer society increases, so does the perception of gender equality. The strong negative impact found in H3 underscores the significant role political representation plays in perceptions of gender inequality, suggesting that political empowerment is crucial for addressing perceived disparities, and as perceptions of equality in political promotions increase, the perceived gender inequality decreases.

All these results have strengthened the previous literature considering the Spanish context. Firstly, the results obtained in this study reveal the complexity and multi-dimensionality of the gender gap in the social and legal context in Spain. Firstly, the study confirms the studies of Wang et al. [6] and Jiang and Lo [7] on the critical importance of legal awareness and education on effective resistance against discriminatory situations at work. The results obtained allow us to revisit these ideas and, furthermore, to observe how the perception of equal application of the law, beyond mere legal awareness, plays an essential role in shaping perceptions of gender equality, suggesting that legal education initiatives, whether at the corporate or societal level, must be accompanied by efforts to ensure fairness in the application of the law.

In addition, by examining the impact of female representation in leadership positions, the results provide empirical support for the assertions of other relevant authors [8], highlighting that the presence of women in leadership roles is capable of improving perceptions of gender equity in the contexts where it occurs. This evidence underscores the need for policies that actively promote equality in leadership roles, not only as a matter of social justice, but as a strategic imperative. The study is also aligned with the findings of several authors [9], who have explored the variability of perceptions of gender equality in different communities. Integrating these perspectives emphasizes the importance of considering cultural and social context in the development of gender equality policies, suggesting that solutions must be customized and context-sensitive to be effective.

While this study confirms several hypotheses from previous literature, it also highlights areas where the results differ or extend existing knowledge. For example, although the perception of discrimination in access to education did not show a significant impact on the overall perception of gender equality, this finding invites further reflection on gender equality measures in the education sector and their public perception, indicating that there may be other influential factors not captured in this study that should be studied in future research.

Finally, the correlation between the perception that gender equality contributes to a fairer society and a greater perception of gender equality reinforces the need to strengthen public narratives around gender equality, as indicated by previous studies [11]. This result not only validates the importance of gender equality policies and practices, but also underscores the power of public perception in promoting meaningful social change towards gender equality.

In conclusion, this study adds to the existing literature by providing a clearer understanding of perceptions of gender equality heritage in Spain, highlighting the importance of equal application of the law, female representation in leadership, and public narratives in shaping these perceptions. Through this dialogue with the previous literature, it emphasizes the need for holistic and contextually sensitive approaches to address the gender gap in the social and legal sphere.

The findings underline the importance of strengthening public policies and organizational initiatives that promote gender equality, particularly in promotions to leadership positions and in the equitable application of the law. They also highlight the critical role of public narrative in building a more positive perception of gender equality, suggesting that change towards a more equitable society requires not only legislative and policy reforms, but also a change in culture and social perceptions. This study contributes to the field of social and gender equality by providing empirical evidence of how public perceptions influence the reality of the gender gap, offering a solid basis for future research and for the development of more effective strategies to promote gender equality and better and more equal societies. The results of the study emphasize the need for policymakers to implement comprehensive strategies that not only address legislative and structural reforms, but also focus on changing societal attitudes and perceptions. For example, prioritizing initiatives that promote the representation of women in leadership positions to improve the perception of gender equality in the political and business spheres. In addition, public awareness campaigns and educational programs that emphasize the social benefits of gender equality can play a key role in changing public opinion. Future research could investigate the underlying cultural factors that underpin perceptions of gender inequality, providing insights to inform more effective and context-specific policy interventions. And finally, these findings could inform future studies exploring the deeper cultural and structural factors contributing to gender inequality perceptions and guide policymakers in designing targeted and effective gender equality initiatives.