Missed Opportunities Due to Gender Bias: A Qualitative Analysis of Microdiscrimination against Female University Students in Spain
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology
2.1. Context
2.2. Participants
- What forms of microdiscrimination do female university students report?
- In the participants’ view, what factors cause the microinequities they have experienced?
2.3. Collecting the Voices
2.4. Interpreting and Analysing the Voices
- Category 1. Spaces of discrimination. This includes the settings in which the microdiscrimination occurred, ranging from the domestic space to the social spaces in the lives of the female students.
- Category 2. Types of microdiscrimination. This refers to the forms of discrimination experienced, ranging from lack of consideration, through unequal treatment compared to men, to microaggressions when acting outside the stereotypes of the weaker sex and femininity.
- Category 3. Emotional experiences. This describes the participants’ narratives about their emotional responses to microdiscrimination, ranging from humiliation or indignation to indifference or denial.
- Category 4. Perception of and reflection on the causes and origins of inequity. This covers the participants’ views about the origin and permanence of unequal gender roles and the hows and whys of persistent male gender superiority.
3. Results
3.1. Category 1. Spaces of Microdiscrimination
3.1.1. Code 1.1 Family and Domestic Space
In terms of doing housework, I don’t know if it’s because of my culture, but, for example, my brother never did the washing-up. I did it. (Student 26)
I wasn’t allowed to go home on my own because I was a girl. My brother could go home alone without having to worry about anything. (Student 18)
In other cases, I’ve also seen how older people like my grandfather have taken my male cousins’ opinions into account before mine when it was obvious they were wrong, or if people were talking about politics he’d say to my grandmother, “you just don’t understand this sort of thing”. (Student 21)
To give an example, recently I felt discriminated against because my little cousin, who’s a boy, had to go to the toilet. He asked a male friend of the family to go with him. This friend turned round and looked at me like I should go. In that instant I did it without thinking, telling myself it was my cousin. But afterwards, thinking about it, I realised it was a really sexist thing to do. He could have gone with him, no problem. (Student 29)
3.1.2. Code 1.2 Teaching Space
I did the science baccalaureate in secondary school and there were twice as many boys as girls. People tended to have more faith in the boys in the science branch, though some of us girls got better marks. (Student 3)
In my case, I’ve always liked science subjects. They’ve always been considered to be ‘for boys’, so when I did a science baccalaureate or took science subjects, I somehow felt isolated, as I was one of the few female students that took any science subjects. We were also treated by teachers as if we were in the wrong class. (Student 11)
An example of this is physical education classes. In secondary school girls were taken less into account, or simply not at all, when it came to doing exercises. Girls and boys were never mixed. Instead the teacher would make up homogeneous groups. (Student 4)
I also felt discriminated against because more was always expected of the boys in certain subjects (physical education) when in fact I love sport but never got higher marks than them even when I performed better than they did. (Student 7)
But when it was time for break, if the girls wanted to use the basketball court or play football (which wasn’t that often), the boys who were already there would tell us not to come onto the court because basically we were terrible players. (Student 8)
As far as I remember, the only time that I felt out of place was possibly in physical education classes, then we girls were the last to be picked on the grounds that we were biologically less strong or less talented than a boy. This is something that doesn’t bother me and I don’t give it more importance than it deserves because, when we’re children, we sometimes don’t look beyond our own interests. (Student 12)
3.1.3. Code 1.3 Workspaces
In my work environment you sometimes get comments coming directly from the other workers or the bosses, along the lines of ‘Stand at the door for a bit and see if you can attract a customer’ or ‘So you were flirting with the customer at table x, were you?’. These are comments that you get used to and you laugh because you have no choice. You just keep working. (Student 5)
In another case it involves looking for work. I don’t know if it’s considered discrimination, but I’ve definitely seen fairly sexist attitudes in connection with my appearance when being taken on to do waitressing work. (Student 21)
I’ve got a job that’s ’typically done by men’. In the beginning they didn’t want to take me on because I’m a woman, and I quote. ‘Women are much worse than men at finding their way around’. Today, I’m recognized as being one of the best workers in the company. (Student 28)
At work I’ve also experienced similar situations. During my first university course I worked in a pizzeria and, while the women were cooking or helping out, the men were on motorbikes delivering the food. (Student 14)
3.1.4. Code 1.4 Areas Used for Sports
First of all, in my sports career I’ve experienced many situations of discrimination. The women’s team, for example, has never been the main source of sponsorship or impetus for the club. Even in the year that both teams (male and female) were playing for promotion to the national league, the men’s team didn’t pay membership fees but the women’s did, and the support in matches as well as in economic terms was obvious. They had better pitches, a better timetable, better conditions, better terraces, etc. In the end, though, the women’s team got promotion and the men’s didn’t. Even today, after various situations like that, it’s still the men’s teams that are supported by default. (Student 14)
I’ve felt discriminated against when playing football with boys. Before you play with them, when they see a girl who wants to play football they tend to undervalue her, leaving her till last when picking people to be on their team because they assume you won’t be as good as them just because you’re female. (Student 27)
They say things like ‘your arms are going to get too big’ or ‘you’re going to have arms like a man and I don’t like that’. There are probably more, but in the end we get used to these examples of micro-male chauvinism after hearing them so often, and sometimes we don’t even realise how they affect us. (Student 5)
Not in my career as a student, but as a sportswomen because the idea persists that if women train a lot they’re going to look like men. I’ve heard it said various times, but my desire to be an elite sportswoman eclipse any comments like that. (Student 10)
3.1.5. Code 1.5 Public Space
I don’t think enough importance is being given to our own safety. Feeling afraid when we’re alone on the street or even when we go out on a Saturday night are things I’ve experienced, and unfortunately that’s how it’ll continue. (Student 9)
3.1.6. Code 1.6 Social and Leisure Spaces
I feel discrimination in everyday life as far as society’s concerned, since women and men aren’t seen as equal human beings. (Student 19)
Finally, now that I drive, I’ve heard comments like “women don’t know how to drive” or the typical “it had to be a woman driver” when I’ve found it difficult to park, for example, although it might actually be due to still being a newly-qualified driver. I haven’t heard the same comments being made when any of my male friends were driving and they’ve been in the same situation or worse than me at the wheel. (Student 21)
3.2. Category 2. Types of Microdiscrimination
3.2.1. Code 2.1 Invisibility and Lack of Consideration
Above all I’ve felt most discriminated against in situations such as going to hardware stores or similar shops. When I’ve been there with a man and asked a question, they always look at him. (Student 1)
Yes, at times when I’ve wanted to make my own contribution I’ve had comments like ‘this is men’s work, they’re stronger, you might hurt yourself’. (Student 2)
When we had physical education classes at secondary school, girls were taken into account less or not at all when it came to doing exercises. (Student 4)
I’ve enjoyed playing football since I was little, but I’ve felt invisible every time I’ve wanted to play football with boys. (Student 15)
3.2.2. Code 2.2 Unequal and Differential Treatment
Before you play with them, when they see a girl who wants to play football they tend to undervalue her, leaving her till last when picking people to be on their team because they assume you won’t be as good as them just because you’re female. (Student 27)
I’ve always felt most discriminated against by my peers. (Student 8)
Like with sportspeople’s salaries, there’s a big difference in pay and even in importance between sportsmen and sportswomen. (Student 11)
Later on, when I was working as an occupational therapist, in some places they always asked for men, presumably because they’re assumed to be strong, but perhaps the requirement should be the ability to lift more or weigh more than X kilos, because I’m sure some men wouldn’t be able to and a lot of women can lift much more weight than men. (Student 14)
Also, when doing the same exercise, the boys almost always got higher marks than the girls in physical education. (Student 4)
3.2.3. Code 2.3 Sex-Based Discrimination, Harassment and Pestering
I also remember going out partying and men would come up and touch my bottom as if there was nothing wrong with doing that. (Student 29)
Another situation that scared me was when I was getting on a bus and a boy put his phone number in my bag. He got on behind me and he left it without me realizing. I spent months looking behind me before getting on buses, scared in case another boy put another piece of paper in my bag. (Also student 29)
Yes, I had a relationship with a boy that made me feel undervalued as a person. The boy in question gave me to understand that I was only an object, that I had to conform perfectly to today’s idea of beauty (developing an eating disorder in the process) and that my contributions were insignificant compared to his. (Student 13)
3.2.4. Code 2.4 Harassment for Transgressing Female Role Stereotypes
[…] as for style of clothing, I feel more comfortable in loose clothes and I’ve had comments like ‘you look like a man dressed like that’. (Student 2)
They’ve never passed me the ball and they always said that they did it better and that because I played with boys I was a “butch”. (Student 15)
As a sportswoman, yes, because there’s still this idea that if women train a lot we’ll look like men. I have heard this various times, but my desire to be an elite sportswoman eclipses any such comments. (Student 10)
3.2.5. Code 2.5 Denial
Academically I’ve been lucky not to feel discriminated against because of my gender. On a personal level, I consider myself to have been equally lucky. (Student 30)
Luckily, I’ve never experienced discrimination... To this day I can be thankful and hope that I’ll never be faced with such a situation. (Student 31)
3.3. Category 3. Emotional Experiences
3.3.1. Code 3.1 Humiliation and Powerlessness
Having done a degree in education (considered by many people to be an easy option and aimed at girls), I’ve felt ‘discriminated against’ when talking to other people, as if the degree was seen as being of no value. (Student 11)
Because in that case what he wanted was for me to be just for show, for me to study but not raise my voice, for me to go out but not for long and depending on who with, for me to buy clothes but not show anything. He made me feel that women are valued for our bodies, not our minds. (Student 13)
3.3.2. Code 3.2 Indignation and Anger
It’s true that in the school playground I’d be furious that girls were not allowed to play ‘what boys played’. (Student 8)
In our case, we had to fight for these rights as if they were luxuries instead of seeing them simply as what they are: rights. (Student 33)
3.3.3. Code 3.3 Apprehension or Fear
There was also one day when a car with two boys stopped by me on a rather lonely street and they asked me to get into the car with them. I remember I said something not very nice to them and walked faster. (Student 29)
I remember another day when a boy followed me home to ask me if I had a boyfriend. This also makes me scared of going to certain places in case someone follows me or tries to do something to me. Wherever I go I’m almost always looking over my shoulder to see who’s behind me. (Also Student 29)
3.3.4. Code 3.4. Indifference and Equanimity
There are probably more, but ultimately we’ve also got used to these examples of micro-male chauvinism after hearing them so often, and sometimes we don’t even realize how they affect us. (Student 5)
However, it hasn’t affected me much on my journey. (Student 6)
3.4. Category 4. Causes and Origin of the Lack of Opportunities
3.4.1. Code 4.1 Origin: Sociocultural Construction of Weak and Strong Roles
I’ve felt that a role was assigned to me simply because I’m a woman. (Student 29)
There are many inequities that women experience simply because they’re women. (Student 9)
I believe that discrimination against women is something that’s connected to society; for a long time women have had a more ‘insignificant’ role. (Student 16)
Women and men are still not seen as equal human beings. Women have never been seen as people in their own right, but only as companions for men. (Student 25)
3.4.2. Code 4.2 Persistence: Naturalized Social Roles
Society is sexist and accepts some situations as normal when they’re not. (Student 29)
I also think that the problem lies in continuing to believe that certain old and obsolete lifestyles are normal. (Student 11)
I think there’s still a lot of cultural influence and gender bias instilled in us when we’re children. This would explain the discrimination found at work, in sport, in education, in the decisions we make when choosing a degree, choosing a job, starting a family, etc. (Student 14)
3.4.3. Code 4.3 Purpose of Stereotypes: Maintaining Inequity by Offering No Opportunities to Women in Order to Perpetuate Patriarchal Behaviour and Male Power
Women, on the other hand, were excluded, which meant they were highly economically dependent on men. (Student 3)
I also think that having made women invisible for so many years means that a lot of men still believe that they have this power of superiority that allows them to treat women as if we had no idea of what we’re doing or saying, when in fact to avoid this very assumption we’ve probably become much more informed and have done sufficient research to be able to address any kind of comment. (Student 21)
3.4.4. Code 4.4 Means: Being Aware That the Political, Legal and Economic Structures Maintain Double Standards of Privilege and Limit Opportunities for Women
The role of women is still subordinate to the patriarchal system of our government. The difference is our continuing struggle even today to obtain something that for men is enshrined as a basic right. (Student 33)
I’ve experienced unequal treatment throughout my life because I’m a woman. (Student 24)
Behaviours such as men working outside the home and earning money to support the family while women do the housework and look after the children are instilled in both men and women. (Student 3)
It is essential to continue working on this in order to eliminate every prejudice and sexist stereotype that is still present in our lives today. (Student 3)
This is changing, I have faith in our society. With the support of everyone and with new education, new schools, new teachers and new generations, let’s change what used to be normalized and create a new reality. (Student 11)
They didn’t understand why there should be a third gender. To which I replied: ‘Maybe you’re lucky enough to be able to identify with the male or female sex, but what about people who don’t feel that way?’ This was met with silence. (Student 3)
In the 21st century there are still thousands of women who do not feel comfortable with themselves. They’re afraid of expressing their feelings, of being excluded simply because they can’t find a place for themselves. Trans women are also women and should be proud of it, should shout it out and celebrate it without fear of rejection. (Student 23)
3.5. Summary of Conclusions
- Sporting, family-domestic and teaching spaces are the most typical areas for gender microaggressions. Although, generally speaking, these occur in any area that women pass through (possibly less so on the street) and in the workplace, only those who work are affected (not every participant in this investigation).
- In the Category 2 Types of Microdiscrimination, the most common aspects mentioned are differential treatment, double standards and harassment for transgressing the stereotypical role that women are expected to play. This means that men are not willing to give up the opportunities that from time immemorial women have not been given.
- In the emotional experiences category, the code for indignation and anger is the most frequently mentioned. In general terms, these are resilient women who do not usually feel scared or humiliated. We could say that their anger is quite high. Maintaining equanimity is not frequent and would probably not be recommended either. Women want to advance in their careers and achieve their dreams and should not have to accept the lack of opportunity.
- In this fourth category, it is the first three codes that indicate the most common areas of awareness, while the other level requires even greater awareness and is the least-mentioned. Nevertheless, participants are aware that microaggressions are more than just impertinence and that men are reluctant to give up their role, while at the same time, assigning women a different one.
4. Discussion and Final Conclusions
4.1. What Society Allows: The Construction of a Binary Difference
4.2. What the Participating Students Experienced
4.3. Structural Microinequity
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
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Category | Codes | AF | AF (%) |
---|---|---|---|
1. Spaces of microdiscrimination | 1.1 Family and domestic space | 20 | 24.39 |
1.2 Teaching space | 18 | 21.95 | |
1.3 Workspaces | 6 | 7.32 | |
1.4 Areas used for sports | 23 | 28.05 | |
1.5 Public space | 4 | 4.88 | |
1.6 Social and leisure spaces | 11 | 13.41 | |
Total | 82 | 100 |
Category | Codes | AF | AF (%) |
---|---|---|---|
2. Types of microdiscrimination | 2.1 Invisibility and lack of consideration | 8 | 8.79 |
2.2 Unequal and differential treatment | 43 | 47.25 | |
2.3 Sex-based discrimination, harassment and pestering | 12 | 13.19 | |
2.4 Harassment for transgressing female role stereotypes | 23 | 25.27 | |
2.5 Denial | 5 | 5.49 | |
Total | 91 | 100 |
Category | Codes | AF | AF(%) |
---|---|---|---|
3. Emotional experiences | 3.1 Humiliation and powerlessness | 7 | 15.22 |
3.2 Indignation and anger | 31 | 67.39 | |
3.3 Apprehension or fear | 5 | 10.87 | |
3.4 Indifference and equanimity | 3 | 6.52 | |
Total | 46 | 100 |
Category | Codes | AF | AF(%) |
---|---|---|---|
4. Causes and origin of the lack of opportunities | 4.1 Origin: sociocultural construction of weak and strong roles | 28 | 32.18 |
4.2 Persistence: naturalized social roles | 24 | 27.59 | |
4.3 Purpose of stereotypes: maintaining inequity by exclusion to perpetuate patriarchal behaviour and male power | 31 | 35.63 | |
4.4 Means: being aware that political, legal and economic structures maintain double standards of privilege and limit opportunities for women | 4 | 4.60 | |
Total | 87 | 100 |
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Martínez-Ruiz, M.A.; Hernández-Amorós, M.J. Missed Opportunities Due to Gender Bias: A Qualitative Analysis of Microdiscrimination against Female University Students in Spain. Societies 2023, 13, 87. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc13040087
Martínez-Ruiz MA, Hernández-Amorós MJ. Missed Opportunities Due to Gender Bias: A Qualitative Analysis of Microdiscrimination against Female University Students in Spain. Societies. 2023; 13(4):87. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc13040087
Chicago/Turabian StyleMartínez-Ruiz, María A., and María J. Hernández-Amorós. 2023. "Missed Opportunities Due to Gender Bias: A Qualitative Analysis of Microdiscrimination against Female University Students in Spain" Societies 13, no. 4: 87. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc13040087