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Diagnostics
Volume 15
Issue 17
10.3390/diagnostics15172133
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Article

Associations Between Paternal Body Mass Index and Neurodevelopmental–Physical Outcomes in Small-for-Gestational-Age Children

by
Yimin Zhang
1,
Shuming Shao
1,
Jiong Qin
1,
Jie Liu
1,
Guoli Liu
1,
Zheng Liu
2,* and
Xiaorui Zhang
1,*
1
Department of Pediatrics, Peking University People’s Hospital, Beijing 100044, China
2
Department of Maternal and Child Health, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Diagnostics 2025, 15(17), 2133; https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics15172133 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 20 June 2025 / Revised: 16 August 2025 / Accepted: 21 August 2025 / Published: 24 August 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Clinical Diagnosis and Prognosis)
Versions Notes

Abstract

Objective: This study investigated the association between paternal preconception paternal body mass index (BMI) categories and physical/neurodevelopmental outcomes in Chinese small-for-gestational-age (SGA) children. Methods: A prospective cohort study enrolled 412 singleton SGA infants born at Peking University People’s Hospital in 2020–2022. Fathers were stratified into underweight, normal-weight, overweight, and obese groups. Follow-up assessments at 24–36 months evaluated growth parameters weight, height, BMI Z-scores and neurodevelopment using the Ages and Stages Questionnaire-3 (ASQ-3) and ASQ: Social–Emotional (ASQ:SE). Multivariable regression was adjusted for paternal covariates. Results: In SGA offspring, paternal underweight correlated with lower birth weights vs. normal/obese paternal BMI and the highest severe SGA rates. Prospective monitoring identified elevated BMI Z-scores (ΔZ = +0.40) and 8.7-fold heightened obesity risk in the paternal obesity group versus normal-weight counterparts. Neurodevelopmental evaluations demonstrated gross motor impairments in both underweight (ΔZ = −0.22) and obese paternal subgroups (ΔZ = −0.25) compared with the normal-weight group, with the obesity cohort additionally exhibiting problem-solving deficiencies (ΔZ = −0.19). The paternal obesity group manifested three-fold greater likelihood of social–emotional delays than the normal-weight group. The underweight and obese paternal groups showed 3.46-fold and 2.73-fold higher probabilities of gross motor deficits, respectively, while obesity was linked to 3.27-fold elevated problem-solving impairment risk-all comparisons versus normal paternal BMI. Overweight status showed no significant links to growth or neurodevelopmental outcomes. Normal-weight fathers had lower risks of obesity and neurodevelopmental issues. Conclusions: This study revealed U-shaped paternal BMI–neurodevelopment links in SGA offspring. Paternal obesity raised offspring obesity/neurodevelopmental risks, while underweight linked to severe SGA and motor deficits, highlighting paternal weight optimization’s modifiable role.
Keywords: paternal weight; neurodevelopment; social-emotional development; small for gestational age paternal weight; neurodevelopment; social-emotional development; small for gestational age

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MDPI and ACS Style

Zhang, Y.; Shao, S.; Qin, J.; Liu, J.; Liu, G.; Liu, Z.; Zhang, X. Associations Between Paternal Body Mass Index and Neurodevelopmental–Physical Outcomes in Small-for-Gestational-Age Children. Diagnostics 2025, 15, 2133. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics15172133

AMA Style

Zhang Y, Shao S, Qin J, Liu J, Liu G, Liu Z, Zhang X. Associations Between Paternal Body Mass Index and Neurodevelopmental–Physical Outcomes in Small-for-Gestational-Age Children. Diagnostics. 2025; 15(17):2133. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics15172133

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhang, Yimin, Shuming Shao, Jiong Qin, Jie Liu, Guoli Liu, Zheng Liu, and Xiaorui Zhang. 2025. "Associations Between Paternal Body Mass Index and Neurodevelopmental–Physical Outcomes in Small-for-Gestational-Age Children" Diagnostics 15, no. 17: 2133. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics15172133

APA Style

Zhang, Y., Shao, S., Qin, J., Liu, J., Liu, G., Liu, Z., & Zhang, X. (2025). Associations Between Paternal Body Mass Index and Neurodevelopmental–Physical Outcomes in Small-for-Gestational-Age Children. Diagnostics, 15(17), 2133. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics15172133

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