Overview of Long-Term Outcome in Adults with Systemic Right Ventricle and Transposition of the Great Arteries: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Heart Failure (HF)
3.1. Systemic Right Ventricle Dysfunction (sRVd)
- The coronary insufficiency due to single coronary perfusion of sRV (right coronary artery) that could be responsible for myocardial fibrosis development [30,31,32]; indeed, both focal and myocardial diffuse fibrosis, as assessed by cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) delayed enhancement imaging, have been correlated with sRVd and adverse long-term outcome [31,33,34];
- Progressive TR, usually secondary to annular enlargement and/or to intrinsic anomaly of the tricuspid valve (frequent features in ccTGA patients);
- Associated cardiac lesions (up to 80% of patients with CCTGA have them, such as ventricular septal defect, pulmonary stenosis and Ebstein anomaly of tricuspid valve) [36,37,38,39]; sRV function is decreased in patients with ccTGA undergoing physiologic repair (compared with those without previous surgery) [40,41] possibly due to the presence of hemodynamically significant concomitant lesions before surgery and the inflammatory response associated with cardiopulmonary bypass [42];
- Ventriculo-ventricular interaction driven by LV systolic dysfunction [22];
- Residual lesions, especially in d-TGA patients after palliation [43].
3.2. Tricuspid Valve Regurgitation (TR)
3.3. Arrhythmias
- in patients with a sRV and systemic ejection fraction ≤ 35% and QRS duration ≥ 150 ms (spontaneous or paced) as HF therapy.
3.4. Functional Class and Exercise Capacity
3.5. Blood Biomarkers
3.6. Medical Therapy
3.7. Surgical and Catheter Interventions
3.8. Mechanical Circulatory Support and Heart Transplantation
3.9. Effect of Pregnancy
4. Sudden Cardiac Death (SCD)
- Supraventricular Tachycardia (SVT) showed a significant impact on the risk of SCD [62]. The incidence of SVT increases with aging and affects up to a third of these patients [19,122]. In the presence of rapid ventricular conduction to the sRV with systolic and/or diastolic dysfunction, this may result in low cardiac output, which may induce myocardial ischemia, potentially leading to ventricular tachycardia (VT) and exposing the patients at risk for SCD [62,123]. In addition, primary VT may also occur, most often in association with sRVd. Limited data suggest that the use of beta-blockers provides some protection [124] and timely ablation of SVT could theoretically avoid events.
- The Mustard procedure is a significant risk factor for SCD [9]. A possible explanation for this could be due to the differences in the surgical techniques between the Mustard and Senning operations. Indeed, the Mustard method brought about more complications compared with the Senning technique, such as baffle obstruction, sinus rhythm disturbances, and SVT.
- sRVd, NYHA class ≥ III/HF hospitalization, and least moderate TR are long-term all-cause mortality risk factors in patients after AtSO [62].
- Primary ventricular tachycardia occurs in about 20% of the patients with ccTGA, especially in those with sRVd [53,126]. This prevalence, which is higher compared to patients after AtSO, may be explained by multiple substrates for dysrhythmia ventricular scars in patients undergoing a physiologic repair strategy (such as the presence of or a possible association with accessory pathways in patients with Ebstein-like valve).
- SRVd is a well-known risk factor for SCD, in particular in patients with sRV EF < 35% [126].
- AV block may increase the risk of SCD. Indeed, the fibrosis of the proximal non-bifurcating His bundle can constitute an underlying arrhythmogenic substrate [127].
Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator (ICD)
5. Risk Assessment Models
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Bevilacqua, F.; Pasqualin, G.; Ferrero, P.; Micheletti, A.; Negura, D.G.; D’Aiello, A.F.; Giamberti, A.; Chessa, M. Overview of Long-Term Outcome in Adults with Systemic Right Ventricle and Transposition of the Great Arteries: A Review. Diagnostics 2023, 13, 2205. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics13132205
Bevilacqua F, Pasqualin G, Ferrero P, Micheletti A, Negura DG, D’Aiello AF, Giamberti A, Chessa M. Overview of Long-Term Outcome in Adults with Systemic Right Ventricle and Transposition of the Great Arteries: A Review. Diagnostics. 2023; 13(13):2205. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics13132205
Chicago/Turabian StyleBevilacqua, Francesca, Giulia Pasqualin, Paolo Ferrero, Angelo Micheletti, Diana Gabriela Negura, Angelo Fabio D’Aiello, Alessandro Giamberti, and Massimo Chessa. 2023. "Overview of Long-Term Outcome in Adults with Systemic Right Ventricle and Transposition of the Great Arteries: A Review" Diagnostics 13, no. 13: 2205. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics13132205
APA StyleBevilacqua, F., Pasqualin, G., Ferrero, P., Micheletti, A., Negura, D. G., D’Aiello, A. F., Giamberti, A., & Chessa, M. (2023). Overview of Long-Term Outcome in Adults with Systemic Right Ventricle and Transposition of the Great Arteries: A Review. Diagnostics, 13(13), 2205. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics13132205