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Article

Origin and Tectonic Implication of Cenozoic Alkali-Rich Porphyry in the Beiya Au-Polymetallic Deposit, Western Yunnan, China

by
Yun Zhong
1,
Yajuan Yuan
2,*,
Ye Lu
3 and
Bin Xia
4
1
School of Surveying and Mapping, Guangdong Polytechnic of Industry and Commerce, Guangzhou 510510, China
2
School of Geography, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China
3
Guangdong Marine Geological Survey Institute, Guangzhou 510075, China
4
School of Marine Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519082, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Minerals 2025, 15(5), 531; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15050531
Submission received: 18 February 2025 / Revised: 3 May 2025 / Accepted: 13 May 2025 / Published: 16 May 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Mantle–Crust Interactions for Petrogenesis and Ore-Forming Processes)
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Abstract

:
Cenozoic alkali-rich porphyries are widely distributed in the junction zone between the Sanjiang Orogenic belt and the Yangtze Plate. They are of great significance for understanding the regional geodynamics, tectonic evolution, and metallogenesis. However, the origin of these porphyries remains controversial. In this study, new petrological, geochemical, and geochronological data are presented for Cenozoic syenite porphyry from the Beiya porphyry Au-polymetallic deposit in western Yunnan. Zircon U-Pb dating results show that the Beiya syenite porphyries formed around 36.3–35.0 Ma, coinciding with the magmatic peak in the Jinshajiang-Red River (JSJ-RR) alkali-rich porphyry belt. Geochemical analyses indicate that the Beiya porphyries have potassic characteristics and an arc-like geochemical affinity, with C-type adakite affinity, suggesting a post-collisional setting. The JSJ-RR fault zone is unlikely to be the primary mechanism responsible for the formation of this alkali-rich porphyry magmatism. Instead, the development of the Beiya alkali-rich porphyries is likely associated with the convective removal of the lower part of the overthickened lithospheric mantle and asthenospheric upwelling during the Eocene–Oligocene. Their magmas probably originated from the partial melting of Paleo–Mesoproterozoic garnet amphibolite facies rocks in the thickened lower continental crust, with the addition of shoshonitic mafic magmas produced by the partial melting of metasomatized lithospheric mantle triggered by asthenospheric upwelling. This study provides additional reliable evidence to further constrain the origin of Cenozoic alkali-rich porphyries in the JSJ-RR belt.

1. Introduction

The Sanjiang Tethyan tectonic domain in southwest China, spanning southern Qinghai, eastern Tibet, western Sichuan, and western Yunnan, is defined by the convergent drainage of the Nujiang, Lancangjiang, and Jinshajiang rivers within the Hengduan Mountains [1] (Figure 1). It was formed by the Indo–Eurasian collision, is characterized by extensive Cenozoic magmatism, and hosts major Cu-Mo-Au deposits [1,2,3,4].
The NW-trending Jinshajiang (Ailao Shan)-Red River fault zone (JSJ-RRFZ, a shear zone), a significant tectonic boundary in the southeastern Tibetan Plateau (Figure 1), extends southward to Indochina. Influenced by the Cenozoic Indo–Australian plate’s southeastward movement and post-collision extension in eastern Tibet [5], this shear zone hosts a ~3700 km-long Cenozoic alkali-rich intrusive belt associated with late-collision orogeny [6,7]. This belt constitutes a major tectonic-magma-metallogenic province in the eastern Indo–Asian collision zone, containing diverse alkali-rich porphyries and significant deposits such as Yulong, Machangqing, and Beiya [6,7].
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Figure 1. (a) A sketch map illustrating the tectonic framework of the Tibetan Plateau and surrounding areas [1,8,9] as well as the location of Figure 1b, and (b) a geological sketch map showing the distribution of Paleogene potassium-rich igneous rocks in western Yunnan [1,2,3,4] and the location of Figure 2.
Figure 1. (a) A sketch map illustrating the tectonic framework of the Tibetan Plateau and surrounding areas [1,8,9] as well as the location of Figure 1b, and (b) a geological sketch map showing the distribution of Paleogene potassium-rich igneous rocks in western Yunnan [1,2,3,4] and the location of Figure 2.
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Despite recent advancements, the petrogenesis of JSJ-RR alkali-rich intrusions remains a subject of debate [10,11,12,13,14,15]. The proposed genetic models include the following.
(1)
Metasomatized lithospheric mantle melting: Partial melting of metasomatized subcontinental lithospheric mantle due to the Indian plate’s eastward subduction [16] though crustal assimilation may be required to explain LILE (large ion lithophile elements)/LREE (light rare earth element) enrichment and HFSE (high-field strength element) depletion in some porphyries [15,17,18].
(2)
Hybrid source origin: Mixed mantle–crustal magmatism involving juvenile crust, ancient crustal materials, OIB (Ocean Island Basalt)/MORB (Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalt), or upper mantle components [17,19,20,21,22,23]. For instance, isotopic data from the Beiya gold district suggest a mixed source involving OIB, MORB, sedimentary rocks, and upper mantle [21]. Recent petrological and geochemical studies further confirm that the ore-bearing alkali-rich porphyries in the northern section of the JSJ-RR belt were likely derived from the partial melting of a Neoproterozoic lower crust with the input of enriched and depleted mantle-derived magmas [22].
(3)
Thickened mafic lower crust melting: Partial melting of thickened mafic lower crust, indicated by K2O, Y, Yb, Sr/Y (56.1–109) and low MgO and Cr (or Ni) values in Western Yunnan Cenozoic potassic felsic igneous rocks [24].
(4)
Island-arc mantle activation: Partial melting of island-arc mantle triggered by Indo-Eurasian collision-driven strike-slip faulting [25] though temporal decoupling with JSJ-RRFZ shearing (33–20 Ma) challenges this model [17,24].
Additionally, post-collisional ore-forming porphyries in the JSJ-RR belt are frequently associated with recycled, metal-enriched lower crust ponded by Neoproterozoic arc magmas [13,15,26]. Nevertheless, zircon Hf isotope model ages (0.94–1.98 Ga) from Beiya, Wandongshan, and Bijiashan porphyries suggest a Paleo–Mesoproterozoic crustal source, conflicting with this hypothesis [27,28].
The Beiya porphyry Au-polymetallic deposit, located in western Yunnan, within the JSJ-RR alkali-rich intrusive belt (Figure 1), comprises multiple porphyry deposits [7,29,30] (Figure 2). Numerous studies have significantly advanced our understanding of the genesis of Cenozoic alkali-rich porphyry and its associated mineralization in the Beiya region [18,27,31,32,33,34]. However, previous studies have focused on Wandongshan and Hongnitang ore blocks; other blocks remain under-investigated [3,18,26,31,35]. Comprehensive geochemical datasets and zircon U-Pb age determinations for the Beiya porphyry across these different ore bodies remain incomplete.
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Figure 2. Simplified geological map of the Beiya porphyry Au-polymetallic deposit in western Yunnan [27,36].
Figure 2. Simplified geological map of the Beiya porphyry Au-polymetallic deposit in western Yunnan [27,36].
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This study systematically investigates the Cenozoic porphyries in the Bijiashan, Wandongshan, Laomajian, and Hongnitang ore blocks of the Beiya deposit (Figure 1 and Figure 2). It employs whole-rock geochemistry, Sr-Nd isotopes, zircon U-Pb dating, and Lu-Hf isotopes to reevaluate the petrogenesis, formation age, and source nature of these porphyries, thereby enhancing our understanding of the region’s tectonic, magmatic, and metallogenic evolution.

2. Geological Background and Sample Descriptions

2.1. Geological Background

The Sanjiang area, a crucial component of the Tethyan tectonic domain, is situated at the eastern edge of the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt, near the convergence of the Pacific and Tethyan tectonic domains. This area experiences intense magmatic activity, resulting in the formation of ultramafic-acidic and alkaline rocks, which may be controlled by regional fault structures. The magmatic activity has three main periods: Variscan, Yanshanian, and Himalayan. The sedimentary strata here are relatively complete, with formation ages ranging from the Proterozoic to the Cenozoic [18].
The Indo–Eurasian collision in the Sanjiang area terminated ~40 Ma, initiating the post-collisional phase [37,38]. Following this, the continuous convergence and compression of the Indo–Eurasian continent caused intense intracontinental thrusting and strike-slip shearing in the Sanjiang area [7,29]. Cenozoic magmatism here is vigorous and extensive, driven by asthenospheric upwelling and significant mantle-derived magmatic activity, mainly from ~40–30 Ma [10,39,40]. The JSJ-RR Cenozoic magmatic rocks are mostly mafic (ca. 37–33 Ma lamprophyre dykes with minor mafic lava) and felsic rocks (ca. 38–33 Ma) [34]. These felsic rocks, emplaced within unmetamorphosed sedimentary sequences, are intermediate-acid alkali-rich porphyritic intrusions of ultra-shallow or shallow facies, associated with polymetallic deposits. They are mainly monzonite porphyry, quartz porphyry, syenite porphyry, and granite porphyry, often occurring as small stocks, rock walls, apophyses, and dykes [2,3,8,10].
The Beiya porphyry Au-polymetallic deposit, the largest gold deposit in southwest China, is situated in Beiya village, Heqing County, Dali Prefecture, Yunnan Province. It spans an area of about 800 km2, primarily along the NNE-trending flank of the Beiya synclinae. Geotectonically, it is connected to the NW-trending JSJ-RR fault, the NS-trending Binchuan-Chenghai fault, and the NE-trending Muli-Lijiang fault [3,8,21,30,36,41,42] (Figure 1).
Due to frequent Himalayan magmatic activities, the Beiya area has many Cenozoic magmatic rocks, especially shallow intermediate-acid intrusions. The main rocks are syenite porphyry, quartzite syenite porphyry, and granite porphyry, with minor biotite granite porphyry and lamprophyre [8,42]. These rock masses, controlled by the N-S trending Maanshan fault and E-W trending concealed fault, are exposed as stocks, sills, or dykes, typically less than 0.1 km2 in area [8,42]. Microgranular enclaves (MMEs), including gabbroic and dioritic enclaves, are found in the porphyry [8].
Mineralization at the Beiya porphyry Au-polymetallic deposit is closely tied to the Himalayan alkali-rich porphyry [43]. Multiple tectonic activities in this area are facilitated hydrothermal alteration, leading to varying degrees of Cu, Au, Ag, Fe, Pb, and Zn mineralization along fault fracture zones or contacts between porphyry bodies and surrounding rocks. The deposit has a west ore belt (Hongnitang, Wandongshan, and Jingouba) and an east belt (Weiganpo, Bijiashan, and Guogaishan) (Figure 2). The Nandaping, Matouwan, Laomajian, and other ore blocks are located on the periphery of the main ore belt [36,42]. Paleogene sedimentary strata in the area consist primarily of red lacustrine sandy mudstones and piedmont coarse clastics [8,42].

2.2. Sample Descriptions

Fourteen representative fresh porphyric samples were collected from the Bijiashan, Wandongshan, Laomajian, and Hongnitang ore blocks of the Beiya porphyry Au-polymetallic deposit. Samples from Bijiashan and Wandongshan represent drill cores (Figure 2 and Figure 3). The coordinates for Laomajian and Hongnitang are 100.139° E, 26.041° N and 100.180° E, 26.145° N, respectively.
All syenite porphyric samples exhibit similar fine-grained porphyritic and block structures, with a cryptocrystalline matrix comprised mainly of feldspar and quartz (Figure 3; Supplementary Table S1). The phenocryst compositions show slight variations among different ore blocks. The Bijiashan and Wandongshan samples primarily contain orthoclase, with minor amounts of quartz and biotite, while the Laomajian and Hongnitang samples have more abundant quartz.
Specific lithological descriptions are as follows.
The Bijiashan syenite porphyry is characterized by hypidiomorphic granular texture and massive structure. It predominantly consists of orthoclase, quartz, biotite, and a small amount of opaque minerals. The orthoclase grains measure 0.4 to 0.8 mm and display fine semi-idiomorphic plate texture with developed cracks. Quartz grains, measuring 0.2 to 0.3 mm, are distributed between orthoclase grains. Biotite grains are patellar and relatively euhedral, with a particle size ranging from 0.2 to 0.4 mm. Opaque minerals occur as semi-idiomorphic grains with a disseminated distribution.
The Wandongshan syenite porphyry displays hypidiomorphic granular texture and massive structure, primarily composed of orthoclase, quartz, and a small amount of opaque minerals. Orthoclase grains range from 0.3 to 1 mm in size, showing fine semi-idiomorphic plate texture with developed cracks. Quartz grains, sized 0.2 to 0.6 mm, are distributed between orthoclase grains. Opaque minerals are present as semi-idiomorphic grains with a disseminated distribution.
The Laomajian quartz syenite porphyry primarily consists of alkaline feldspar, plagioclase, quartz, and a few opaque minerals. Alkaline feldspars are predominantly orthoclase, which are fine, alloform-semi-idiomorphic granular with sizes ranging from 0.50 to 1.00 mm and are often metasomatized by quartz. Plagioclase is mainly oligoclase, with a particle size of 0.30 to 1.00 mm, exhibiting a semi-idiomorphic plate shape, fine polysynthetic twinning, slight sericitization, and silicification. Quartz grains, about 0.02 to 0.50 mm in size, have undergone recrystallization. Opaque minerals are about 0.02 to 0.10 mm in size, with a semi-hedral and hedral grain structure and disseminated structure.
The Hongnitang quartz syenite porphyry primarily consists of alkaline feldspar, plagioclase, quartz, and a small amount of opaque minerals. Alkaline feldspars are predominantly orthoclase, exhibiting a fine, alloform-semi-idiomorphic granular structure, sized 0.2 to 1.0 mm. Plagioclase is mainly oligoclase, with particle sizes ranging from 0.2 to 2.0 mm. It exhibits a semi-idiomorphic tabular habit and fine polysynthetic twinning, along with slight sericitization and silicification. Quartz grains, approximately 0.05 to 1.50 mm in size, have undergone recrystallization. Opaque minerals are about 0.02 to 0.50 mm in size, with a semi-hedral and hedral grain structure and disseminated structure.

3. Analytical Methods

Zircon U-Pb dating was conducted using laser ablation inductively, coupled with plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), at the State Key Laboratory of Isotope Geochemistry, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences (GIGCAS). The internal structure was examined using cathodoluminescence (CL) images prior to U-Pb isotopic analyses. The LA-ICP-MS system utilized consisted of an Agilent 7500a ICP-MS, coupled with a Resonetics RESOlution M-50 ArF Excimer laser source (λ = 193 nm), using laser energy of 80 mJ, a repetition rate of 10 Hz, a spot diameter of 31 μm, and an ablation time of 40 s. Helium served as a carrier gas to carry ablated aerosols to the ICP source [44]. NIST610 [45] and TEMORA (206Pb/238U = 416.8 Ma) [46] were utilized as external calibration standards, along with 29Si as an internal standard. Common Pb was corrected by using observed 204Pb. The ages cited in the text are 206Pb/238U ages (the older age is the 207Pb/206Pb age), which are the weighted mean at the 95% confidence level. The ICPMSDataCal 7.4 software and the ISOPLOT 3 add-in were used for data processing [47,48].
Major element abundances were analyzed using an X-ray fluorescence spectrometer (XRF) on glass disks at the GIGCAS [49], with analytical uncertainties ranging from 1% to 5%. Trace elements were determined using a Perkin-Elmer Sciex ELAN 6000 ICP-MS at the GIGCAS. The powdered samples (~50 mg) were dissolved in high-pressure Teflon bombs using a HF + HNO3 mixture for 24 h. An internal standard Rh was used to monitor signal drift when counting. The methods are described in [49], with analytical accuracies ranging from 2% to 5%.
Sr and Nd isotopic analyses were conducted using a Neptune Plus Multi-Collector inductively, coupled with a plasma mass spectrometer (MC-ICP-MS), at the Guilin University of Technology (GUT). The analytical methods used are similar to those described in reference [50]. In brief, approximately 100 mg sample powders were dissolved in Teflon bombs with HF + HNO3 acid at 150 °C overnight. Separation of Nd was achieved by passing through cation columns, followed by HDEHP columns. Measured Sr and Nd isotopic ratios were normalized based on 86Sr/88Sr = 0.1194 and 146Nd/144Nd = 0.7219, respectively. Throughout the analyses, 87Sr/86Sr values of the NBS987 standard and 143Nd/144Nd ratios of the JNdI-1 standard were 0.710267 ± 12 (2σ) and 0.512088 ± 4 (2σ), respectively. The parameters involved in the calculation are from references [51,52].
Zircon Hf isotope analysis, excluding sample WDS-01, was conducted in situ using an ArF excimer laser ablation system attached to a Neptune plasma MC-ICP-MS (LA-MC-ICP-MS) at the GIGCAS. Instrumental conditions and data acquisition are comprehensively described in reference [49]. A stationary spot was used for the present analyses, with a beam diameter of 44 μm, a laser energy density of 80 mJ/pulse, and a repetition rate of 8 Hz, depending on the sizes of the ablated domains. Helium was used as the carrier gas to transport the ablated samples from the ablation cell to the ICP-MS torch. To assess the quality of the analytical data, the Penglai standard zircon was analyzed, yielding a 176Hf/177Hf ratio of 0.282898 ± 0.000008 (2σ, n = 16), which is consistent with the recommended value (176Hf/177Hf = 0.282906 ± 0.000010) [53]. The parameters involved in the calculation are from references [54,55,56].
Zircon Lu-Hf isotopic analyses of the sample WDS-01 were conducted using a Neptune Plus MC-ICP-MS in conjunction with an ESI NewWave 193 excimer ArF laser ablation system at the Guangxi Key Laboratory of Hidden Metallic Ore Deposits Exploration, GUT. A stationary spot with a beam diameter of 50 μm was used for the analyses. During routine analyses, zircon GJ1 was used as the reference standard, yielding a weighted mean 176Hf/177Hf ratio of 0.282010 ± 0.000002 (2σ, n = 8). This is consistent with the weighted mean 176Hf/177Hf ratio of 0.282013 ± 0.000003 (2σ) obtained through a solution analysis method, as reported in reference [57].

4. Results

4.1. Zircon U-Pb Dating

Zircon grains of four syenite porphyric samples collected from the Bijiashan, Wandongshan, Laomajian, and Hongnitang ore blocks are mostly euhedral, transparent, and columnar, ranging in length from 80 to 180 μm with length-to-width ratios of 1:1 to 1:3 (Figure 4). The zircons display oscillatory zoning in CL images, a feature characteristic of zircons from magmatic rocks [58]. The Th/U values of the analyzed zircons are mostly greater than 0.1 (Supplementary Table S2), with the exception of three spots in samples WDS01 (Wandongshan) and LMJ-01 (Laomajian), indicating a typical magmatic origin for the zircons [59].
The average age of zircon U-Pb was calculated after discarding data with a concordant degree less than 85%. Sample BJS07 (Bijiashan) yielded 206Pb/238U ages ranging from 36.6 to 33.7 Ma, with a weighted average age of 35.0 ± 0.6 Ma (n = 9, MSWD = 1.2; Figure 5a). Sample WDS01 (Wandongshan) produced 206Pb/238U ages ranging from 37.2 to 35.1 Ma, with a weighted average age of 36.2 ± 0.3 Ma (n = 13, MSWD = 0.92; Figure 5b). The 206Pb/238U ages of sample LMJ-01 (Laomajian) range from 37.0 to 33.9 Ma, with a weighted average of 35.5 ± 0.6 Ma (n = 10, MSWD = 2.4; Figure 5c). Additionally, sample HNT-01 (Hongnitang) provided 206Pb/238U ages ranging from 37.8 to 34.9 Ma, with a weighted average of 36.3 ± 0.7 Ma (n = 7, MSWD = 2.4; Figure 5d). All ages from the samples represent the formation age.

4.2. Whole-Rock Geochemical Compositions

Whole-rock major and trace element data for the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry from the Bijiashan, Wandongshan, Laomajian, and Hongnitang ore blocks are presented in Supplementary Table S3 (including 24 samples collected from open published literature [3,8,31,35,60]). These rocks have SiO2 contents ranging from 65.40 to 72.82 wt.%, indicating their intermediate-acidic to acidic nature. The Rittmann indexes (σ = [ω(K2O + Na2O)]2/[ω(SiO2-43)]) vary from 2.40 to 6.11 with a mean of 4.09, resembling those of alkaline rocks. Their K2O contents range from 5.68 to 11.32 wt.%, with total alkali (Na2O + K2O) values of 8.03–12.31 wt.% and K2O/Na2O ratios of 1.51–24.91, thus classifying them as potassium rocks. On the QAP diagram, these rocks are within alkali-feldspar granite porphyry, quartz alkali feldspar syenite porphyry, syeno-granite porphyry, quartz syenite porphyry, monzo-granite porphyry, and quartz monzonite porphyry fields (Figure 6a). They plot within the shoshonite series on the K2O vs. SiO2 diagram (Figure 6b). The Al2O3 contents are relatively high, ranging from 13.45 to 17.00 wt.%, with A/CNK values of 0.75–1.56. These data suggest that the Beiya alkali-rich porphyries primarily belong to metaluminous to peraluminous rocks (Figure 6c).
On the primitive mantle-normalized diagram (Figure 7a), the partition curves of the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry exhibit identical right-leaning trends. Generally, the porphyries are enriched in LILEs such as Rb, Ba, K, and Sr, and depleted in HFSEs including Ta, Nb, and Ti, comparable to arc calc-alkaline magmas derived from melting of a wedge mantle metasomatized by fluids from a subducted oceanic slab [29]. The total REE (ΣREE) contents of the rocks are low, ranging from 36.3 to 138.82 ppm. The chondrite-normalized REE patterns display LREE enrichment and heavy rare earth element (HREE) depletion (Figure 7b), with (La/Yb)N ratios of 5–37. The δEu values of the samples range from 0.43 to 1.26 with a mean of 0.88, displaying weak negative Eu anomalies overall. These characteristics differ from those of coeval lamprophyres in western Yunnan (Figure 7), which were derived from a metasomatized lithospheric mantle [66].

4.3. Whole-Rock Sr-Nd and Zircon Hf Isotopic Compositions

The whole-rock Sr and Nd isotopic results for the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry are presented in Supplementary Table S4. The (87Sr/86Sr)i ratios for the samples, ranging from 0.707478 to 0.709280, exceed the mantle’s initial value (0.7044) and are akin to those of the Beiya monzogranite porphyry (0.7060–0.7081) [8,35]. The Nd composition and 147Sm/144Nd ratios of the rocks show relative stability. The (143Nd/144Nd)i ratios vary from 0.512327 to 0.512407, while the εNd(t) values range from −5.6 to −4.1, which are similar to those of the Beiya monzogranite and syenite porphyries (−6.7 to −1.5) [8,35].
In Figure 8, these rocks plot between the MORB and enriched mantle (EM) end-members, closer to the MORB and the EM I fields. They occupy the same area as the Cenozoic post-collisional potassic-ultrapotassic volcanic rocks in northern Tibet and the Cenozoic potassic felsic intrusions in western Yunnan, implying a similar genetic mechanism.
The zircon 176Lu/177Hf ratios for the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry range from 0.000265 to 0.001688 (Supplementary Table S5), indicating the absence of significant accumulation of radiation-induced Hf after zircon crystallization [82]. The zircon 176Hf/177Hf ratios range from 0.282475 to 0.282710, whereas the fLu/Hf values are from −0.99 to −0.95. Based on the concordia age-adjusted calculation for zircon U-Pb dating, the εHf(t) values vary from −9.7 to −0.6 (Figure 9), which are distinct from those of the Beiya monzogranite porphyry (−2.4 to 2.1) [8]. The crustal model ages (TDM2) of the zircons are concentrated between 1152 and 1734 Ma, older than those of the Beiya monzogranite porphyry (0.8–1.1 Ga) [8]. These ages are comparable to those reported for the Eocene mineralized porphyry in Bijiashan, with zircon Hf isotope model ages ranging from 0.94 to 1.98 Ga (primarily 1.05–1.55 Ga) [28], as well as the Eocene mineralized porphyry in Wandongshan, which yielded zircon Hf isotope model ages ranging from 0.11 to 1.59 Ga [27].

5. Discussion

5.1. Chronological Significance of the Beiya Syenite Porphyry

The chronological significance of the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry is critical for elucidating Cenozoic tectono-magmatic evolution in the Sanjiang region. Previous chronological studies in this area have yielded inconsistent results due to method limitations and sample selection. Early K-Ar and Ar-Ar dating on porphyry rocks from Wandongshan (65.6–25.5 Ma), Hongnitang (50.9–24.6 Ma), and Bijiashan (37.8 Ma) revealed broad age ranges [19,86,87]. Recent zircon U-Pb analyses narrowed these to 36.5–36.2 Ma for Hongnitang, 37.0–33.3 Ma for Wandongshan, and 35.2 Ma for Bijiashan [27,31,42,88]. Our LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb dating of four Beiya samples give ages of 36.3–35.0 Ma, aligning with regional magmatic records. Collectively, these results indicate the alkali-rich porphyry emplacement in the Beiya area predominantly occurred from 37–33 Ma.
Collisional orogens, such as the Tibetan orogen, typically undergo three principal stages: initial collisional convergence with crustal shortening and thickening; late-collisional transformation with strike-slip faulting, thrust systems, and potassic magmatism; and post-collisional extension involving lithospheric thinning, deep crustal shortening, and shallow extension [25]. The Indian and Eurasian continents collided around 65 Ma, and the Sanjiang area’s Indo–Eurasian collision ended at about 40 Ma, marking the post-collision phase’s beginning [25,37,38]. This study suggests the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry formed around 37–33 Ma, placing it within this post-collision setting. This inference is supported by the conclusion delineated in Section 5.3.
Spatially, the age of the Beiya porphyry overlaps with coeval alkali-rich porphyries in the JSJ-RR metallogenic belt, including those at Machangqing, Yao’an, Laojiezi, and Habo [89,90,91]. This cluster corresponds to the peak of Himalayan potassium magmatism (42–32 Ma) along the JSJ-RR alkali-rich porphyry belt [10], suggesting a common tectonic driver. Temporally, the Beiya porphyry’s emplacement coincides with major Cu-Mo-Au mineralization events (40–35 Ma) in the belt, such as Yulong (40 Ma), Beiya skarn (37 Ma), and Machangqing (36–35 Ma) [3]. These synchronous magmatic and metallogenic processes indicate a shared tectono-thermal origin.
While previous models attribute JSJ-RR belt magmatism to strike-slip tectonics [9,29], an increasing number of geochronological constraints challenge this interpretation. U-Pb and Ar-Ar dating of leucogranites in the JSJ-RRFZ indicate that the sinistral shear movement occurred around 33–22 Ma [92,93,94,95]. More recent dating of metamorphic massifs within and around the JSJ-RR shear zone has demonstrated large-scale left-lateral shearing, which was dominant and ranged in age from 31 Ma to 20 Ma [96,97,98,99]. Significantly, the youngest Beiya porphyry age (33.3 Ma, Figure 4) predates major shear zone activity, and most zircon U-Pb ages exceed 34 Ma. This temporal decoupling suggests that the JSJ-RRFZ may not account for the alkali-rich porphyry magmatism in the Beiya porphyry Au-polymetallic deposit.

5.2. Petrogenesis

5.2.1. Fractional Crystallization, Partial Melting, and Crustal Assimilation

The magmatic evolution of the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry was investigated through an integrated analysis of major-trace element systematics and isotopic signatures. Fractional crystallization processes are evidenced by systematic variations in major element compositions. The Beiya alkali-rich porphyries display systematic negative correlations between SiO2 and MgO, TiO2, Fe2O3T, CaO, and P2O5 on the Harker diagrams (Figure 10), indicating successive fractionation of Fe-Ti oxides and apatite. This interpretation is reinforced by the depletion of compatible elements (Cr = 0.99–22.80 ppm; Ni = 0.96–12.00 ppm), consistent with the removal of olivine and pyroxene during early-stage differentiation. However, the absence of pronounced negative Eu anomalies (δEu = 0.42–1.26, mean = 0.88) suggests limited plagioclase fractionation.
Incompatible element ratios, such as those between La and La/Yb or La and La/Sm, serve as effective indicators for distinguishing whether the rock formation originated from fractional crystallization or partial melting processes [100]. The positive correlations in La vs. La/Yb and La vs. La/Sm plots (Figure 11) demonstrate that partial melting processes have a dominant control over fractional crystallization. This aligns with the tendency of intermediate-acid potassium rocks to form via partial melting rather than fractional crystallization [101]. Thus, the Beiya alkali-rich porphyries likely originated primarily from partial melting, with fractional crystallization playing a secondary role.
Crustal contamination during magma ascent can modify original compositions of magmatic rocks. The Beiya alkali-rich porphyries exhibit enrichment in LILEs and LREEs, depletion in Nb-Ta-Ti, and enrichment in Zr-Hf relative to neighboring elements (Figure 7). Combined with (87Sr/86Sr)i (0.707478–0.709280) and εNd(t) ranges (−5.6 to −4.1) (Supplementary Table S3), these geochemical characteristics suggest potential crustal contamination. The presence of older zircons in some samples (WDS01: 791 Ma, 305 Ma, 218 Ma, 161 Ma; BJS07: 124 Ma) (Supplementary Table S2) further implies this process. Ratios of elements with similar distribution coefficients are unaffected by fractional crystallization or the degree of partial melting. Correlations between different elemental ratios can serve as effective indicators of crustal contamination [102,103,104]. In the study area, the Beiya alkali-rich porphyries exhibit horizontal linear relationships for the La/Yb-Nb/Ta, Ce/Pb-La/Nb, and Ta/Yb-Th/Yb ratios, while Th/Nb-Ce/Nb shows no significant correlation. These patterns do not indicate significant crustal contamination. Additionally, the Nb/U ratio (0.86–5.13, mean 2.62) is lower than the upper crust’s (≈9) [105], further implying no significant crustal contamination.

5.2.2. Nature of Magma Sources

The Beiya alkali-rich porphyry is classified as a potassium rock, with its petrogenesis constrained by three established genetic models for Sanjiang potassic-ultrapotassic rocks: (1) fractional crystallization of enriched lithospheric mantle-derived mafic melts [35,106]; (2) partial melting of thickened lower continental crust [107,108]; and (3) magma mixing of mantle-crustal components in varying proportions [9,109,110,111,112].
Geochemically, the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry shows a wide range of geochemical values: SiO2 = 65.40–72.82 wt.% (with a mean of 68.71 wt.%), Al2O3 = 13.70–17.00 wt.% (with a mean of 14.95 wt.%), MgO = 0.04–1.39 wt.% (with a mean of 0.50 wt.%), Sr = 320–1240 ppm), La/Yb = 7.17–51.61 (with a mean of 24.74), and Sr/Y = 35.94–332.22 (with a mean of 68.49) (Supplementary Table S3). These values, combined with positive Sr anomalies, weak δEu anomalies, HREE depletion (Figure 7), and alignment within the adakite field in Figure 12, indicate an adakitic affinity for the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry. Adakites are categorized into O-type (oceanic subduction-related) and C-type (typically crustal thickening-related) [113]. O-type adakites are characterized by low K2O, high Na2O/K2O, low (87Sr/86Sr)i, and positive εNd(t) values, distinguishing them from C-type adakites [114]. Based on these features, the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry is likely C-type adakite.
C-type adakites typically form via partial melting of: (1) ancient mafic rocks in the thickened lower crust (>50 km) underplated by lithospheric mantle-derived mafic magmas [115], (2) intermediate-basic rocks in the thickened lower crust [6,116], (3) newly underplated basaltic crust [117,118], or (4) delaminated lower crust [119]. The Beiya alkali-rich porphyry’s geochemistry suggests a hybrid origin involving both mantle and crustal components. Key evidence for crustal dominance includes the following.
(1) The high SiO2 contents > 66 wt.% of felsic rocks suggests they cannot be directly derived from partial mantle source melting, which would cause the magmas to have no more silica than andesitic in composition [120,121,122]. The Beiya alkali-rich porphyry’s SiO2 content (65.40–72.82 wt.%, with a mean of 68.71 wt.%) rules out this model. (2) Mantle-derived magmas typically exhibit peralkaline characteristics [123,124,125], whereas partial melting of supracrustal sediments results in strongly peraluminous melts [126]. The geochemical trend from peralkaline to peraluminous in Figure 6c suggests a crustal source influenced by mantle-derived magma. This is supported by the porphyry’s low Nd/Th (0.51–2.28) and Nb/Ta (9.60–17.67) ratios, which are closer to crustal values (~3 and ~12) than mantle-derived rocks (>15 and ~22) [127]. (3) Zircon Hf isotope data, featuring εHf(t) values of −9.7 to −0.6 and two-stage Hf model ages (TDM2) of 1152–1734 Ma (Supplementary Table S4), along with εNd(t) values of −5.6 to −4.1 (Supplementary Table S3), indicate a Paleo–Mesoproterozoic crustal source with a certain number of mantle-derived components to the source region. This aligns with previous studies on Eocene mineralized porphyries in Bijiashan and Wandongshan, which show zircon Hf model ages of 0.94–1.98 Ga [27,28]. The εHf(t) values overlap with the Yangtze Block basement (Figure 9), where a Paleo- to Neoproterozoic (or even earlier) metamorphosed basement exists in the western margin [128,129]. Thus, the Beiya alkali-rich porphyries likely originated from this ancient, metamorphosed basement.
Major element diagrams, including the SiO2 vs. MgO (Figure 10e), SiO2 vs. Mg# (Figure 10f), SiO2 vs. K2O (Figure 6b), and A/NK vs. A/CNK (Figure 6c), suggest a thickened lower crust origin for the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry, consistent with SiO2 vs. Cr and SiO2 vs. Ni plots (Figure 10g,h). This aligns with previous studies on Cenozoic ore-forming porphyry intrusions in Tibet and western Yunnan, which were predominantly derived from partial melting of the subduction-modified, thickened mafic lower crust [15]. The Sr/Y vs. Y and (La/Yb)N vs. YbN diagrams (Figure 12) place the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry near the 10% garnet amphibolite melting curve, indicating derivation from partial melting of the thickened lower crust, likely in the garnet amphibolite facies. Previous studies have shown that amphibole breakdown in thickened lower crust (e.g., garnet amphibolite, amphibole eclogite) during melting releases fluids into fertile magmas, promoting the oxidation state and H2O content necessary for porphyry Cu-Mo-Au systems [29].
Considering the evidence and post-collisional setting (see Section 5.1 and Section 5.3) of the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry, we conclude that it is a C-type adakite, most likely resulting from the partial melting of Paleo–Mesoproterozoic garnet amphibolite facies rocks within the thickened lower continental crust, influenced by mantle-derived magma. It is noteworthy that while some previous studies propose that ore-forming porphyry intrusions in the Gangdese and JSJ-RR belts originated solely from the partial melting of garnet-bearing amphibolite in the subduction-modified thickened lower crust [13,130], experimental evidence suggests that partial melts of garnet amphibolite typically exhibit adakitic characteristics and are calc-alkalic, but they are deficient in potassium and LILEs (Rb, Ba, Th, U) [131], which is inconsistent with the adakite-like rocks in our study (Figure 7). This indicates a mixed magma source.

5.3. Genetic Model

Tectonic discrimination diagram locates the Beiya porphyry within and around post-collisional granite field (Figure 13), consistent with the regional closure of the Tethyan and Jinshajiang–Ailao Shan Oceans at 37–33 Ma [25,37,38,132]. The presence of gabbroic/dioritic microgranular enclaves (MMEs), which are diagnostic of post-collisional magmatism [133], further supports this setting [8,133]. This inference aligns with the characteristics of adakite-like potassic rocks from post-collisional settings, which typically exhibit high Sr/Y ratios (35.94–332.22 ppm, this paper) and negative Nb, Ta, and Ti anomalies, but lack obvious Eu anomalies (Figure 7) [134,135,136].
The lower-crustal melting model is frequently used to interpret the geochemical features of porphyry intrusions in the Gangdese, Yulong, and JSJ-RR belts, especially their subduction-related and adakite-like characteristics [13,130]. Nevertheless, a two-stage model for post-collisional porphyry copper deposits in these belts has gained widespread acceptance [15,26]. This model involves the generation of post-collisional ore-forming porphyry intrusions through partial melting of subduction-modified, thickened mafic lower crust (underplated Neoproterozoic arc magmas), with contributions from metasomatized lithospheric mantle-derived ultrapotassic magmas [15]. This conflicts with our conclusion that the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry primarily originated from partial melting of a Paleo–Mesoproterozoic garnet amphibolite facies source in the thickened lower continental crust [18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27].
The post-collision phase represents an extensional environment with tectonic relaxation [137]. Cenozoic potassic adakite-like and shoshonitic felsic intrusions in western Yunnan are linked to lithospheric thinning [24,35]. Prevailing models for lithosphere thinning include thermal erosion and/or chemical metasomatism transforming the lower part of the lithospheric mantle into asthenosphere, and delamination of the lithospheric mantle, possibly including the lowermost crust [138].
The lamprophyres and mafic volcanic rocks in western Yunnan are interpreted as originating from a metasomatized lithospheric mantle [66,67,68,69,70,71], suggesting incomplete lithospheric mantle delamination in the study area. Regionally, the limited extent of potassic magmatism and the absence of asthenospheric-sourced magmatism in western Yunnan make the delamination model unsuitable [69]. More plausibly, convective erosion of the lower lithospheric mantle, coupled with lithospheric thinning and subsequent asthenospheric upwelling, induced partial melting of the residual lithospheric mantle [69]. The Cenozoic asthenospheric upwelling in western Yunnan is evidenced by geophysical data revealing a ~300 km-wide mantle diapir derived from depths of ~450 km beneath western Yunnan [139]. Furthermore, an alternative model involving partial melting of delaminated mafic lower crust suggests that the resulting melts would exhibit anomalously high Sr/Y ratios (>100) due to the elevated garnet content in the restites [131], which contrasts with the mean Sr/Y ratio of 68.49 in the adakite-like rocks studied here.
Experimental studies reveal that Tibetan post-collisional adakite-like potassic rocks with arc geochemical signatures originate from partial melting of a hybrid source (80% garnet amphibolite + 20% primitive shoshonite) [131]. This mantle–crust interaction model explains both incompatible element enrichment and thermal energy required for crustal anatexis [131].
Cenozoic shoshonitic rocks in eastern Tibet occur along the Ailao Shan-Jinsha River fault zone and adjacent areas, comprising ultrabasic to acidic intrusive and extrusive varieties [140]. Sr-Nd-Pb isotopes indicate their derivation from metasomatized lithospheric mantle [140]. Lower crustal xenoliths hosted by Eocene–Oligocene potassic felsic intrusions suggest crustal thickness of ~55 km beneath western Yunnan [107]. Collectively, these observations support the genetic model proposed by Wang et al. [131], which can be applied to explain the origin of the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry (Figure 14).
(1)
Proterozoic subduction modification: Since the Neoarchean era, the continental margin of the Yangtze Craton has undergone multiple tectono-magmatic cycles associated with the supercontinents Columbia, Rodinia, Gondwana, and the Emeishan mantle plume [26]. Subsequent Proterozoic oceanic subduction beneath the craton introduced fluids into the lithospheric mantle, leading to the formation of hydrous mineral-enriched metasomatic domains crucial for subsequent magma formation [26].
(2)
Lithospheric thickening and erosion: Post-65 Ma India–Eurasia collision thickened the western Yunnan lithosphere [25], triggering gravitational instability that induced convective erosion of the lower lithospheric mantle. The consequent asthenospheric upwelling and extensional thinning provided thermodynamic conditions for mantle melting [69].
(3)
Mantle magma generation: Decompressional melting of upwelling asthenosphere transferred heat to the metasomatized subcontinental lithospheric mantle, generating shoshonitic/potassic mafic magmas [131].
(4)
Hybrid crustal melting: These mafic magmas underplated the ~55 km-thick lower crust, providing both incompatible element enrichment and thermal energy for partial melting of garnet amphibolite. The resulting hydrous melts ascended to form the Beiya porphyry at 37–33 Ma.
Throughout this process, the lithospheric mantle, which has been modified by paleo-subduction, supplies fluids and metal sources for Cenozoic non-arc Au-Cu-Mo mineralization, while lithospheric thinning provides the necessary thermodynamic conditions [26].

6. Conclusions

(1) LA-ICP-MS U-Pb zircon dating of four syenite porphyry samples from the Beiya porphyry Au-polymetallic deposit indicates ages ranging from 36.3 to 35.0 Ma, aligning with the magmatic peak in the JSJ-RR alkali-rich porphyry belt.
(2) The Beiya alkali-rich porphyry exhibits C-type adakite characteristics and was formed in a post-collisional environment.
(3) It likely formed as the lower continental lithospheric mantle was convectively removed and the asthenosphere rose upwards. The magmas probably originated from the partial melting of Paleo–Mesoproterozoic garnet amphibolite facies rocks in the thickened lower continental crust, with some shoshonitic mafic magma mixed in.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/min15050531/s1: Table S1. LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb analytical results of the syenite porphyry samples from Beiya gold-polymetallic ore field; Table S2. Major (wt.%) and trace element compositions (ppm) and calculated parameters of the syenite porphyry samples from Beiya gold-polymetallic ore field; Table S3. Sr-Nd isotopic compositions of the syenite porphyry samples from Beiya gold-polymetallic ore field; and Table S4. Lu-Hf isotopic data of zircons from the syenite porphyry samples in Beiya gold-polymetallic ore field. Table S5. Lu–Hf isotopic data of zircons from the syenite porphyry samples in Beiya gold–polymetallic ore field.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Y.Z. and Y.Y.; methodology, Y.Z., Y.Y., and Y.L.; software, Y.Z. and Y.Y.; validation, Y.Z., Y.Y., and Y.L.; formal analysis, Y.Z. and Y.Y.; investigation, Y.Z., Y.Y., and Y.L.; resources, B.X.; data curation, Y.Z. and Y.Y.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.Z. and Y.Y.; writing—review and editing, Y.Z. and Y.Y.; visualization, Y.Z., Y.Y., and Y.L.; supervision, Y.Y.; project administration, Y.Z., Y.Y., and B.X.; funding acquisition, Y.Z., Y.Y., and B.X. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 42102256); Natural Science Foundation of Guangdong Province (Nos. 2017A030310395, 2018B030311030); Young Innovative Talent Project of Department of Education of Guangdong Province (Natural Science; grant 2022KQNCX184); Natural Research Project of Guangdong Polytechnic of Industry & Commerce (grant 2022-ZKT-01); High-level Talent Special Support Program of Guangdong Polytechnic of Industry & Commerce (grant 2023-gc-03); and Guangdong Key Scientific Research Platform and Projects for Higher-educational Institutions (grant 2023GCZX010).

Data Availability Statement

Data are available on request from the corresponding author of the manuscript.

Acknowledgments

We express our sincere gratitude to Bigyan for polishing the paper, Zhang Yuquan for his help with the discussion, Xianglin Tu with the chronology analysis, and Yin Liu for the geochemical analysis. We thank the journal editor and three anonymous reviewers for their careful revisions and constructive comments, which helped us improve the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 3. Photographs of hand specimens and photomicrographs of samples from the Bijiashan (a,b), Wandongshan (c,d), Laomajian (e,f), and Hongnitang (g,h) ore blocks. (i) Field occurrence of the Hongnitang ore blocks. Minerals are abbreviated as follows: plagioclase = Pl, K-feldspar = Kfs, quartz = Qz, and biotite = Bt.
Figure 3. Photographs of hand specimens and photomicrographs of samples from the Bijiashan (a,b), Wandongshan (c,d), Laomajian (e,f), and Hongnitang (g,h) ore blocks. (i) Field occurrence of the Hongnitang ore blocks. Minerals are abbreviated as follows: plagioclase = Pl, K-feldspar = Kfs, quartz = Qz, and biotite = Bt.
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Figure 4. Cathodoluminescence images for zircons from the Beiya syenite porphyric samples from the Bijiashan (a), Wandongshan (b), Laomajian (c), and Hongnitang (d) ore blocks.
Figure 4. Cathodoluminescence images for zircons from the Beiya syenite porphyric samples from the Bijiashan (a), Wandongshan (b), Laomajian (c), and Hongnitang (d) ore blocks.
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Figure 5. The zircon U-Pb concordia diagrams and weighted 206Pb/238U mean age diagrams of the Beiya syenite porphyric samples from the Bijiashan (a), Wandongshan (b), Laomajian (c), and Hongnitang (d) ore blocks.
Figure 5. The zircon U-Pb concordia diagrams and weighted 206Pb/238U mean age diagrams of the Beiya syenite porphyric samples from the Bijiashan (a), Wandongshan (b), Laomajian (c), and Hongnitang (d) ore blocks.
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Figure 6. Chemical classification diagrams for the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry in western Yunnan. (a) QAP diagram [61], (b) K2O vs. SiO2 diagram [62,63], and (c) A/NK vs. A/CNK diagram [64]. A = Al2O3, N = Na2O, K = K2O, and C = CaO (all in molar proportion). The fields of literature data for adakite are from [65].
Figure 6. Chemical classification diagrams for the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry in western Yunnan. (a) QAP diagram [61], (b) K2O vs. SiO2 diagram [62,63], and (c) A/NK vs. A/CNK diagram [64]. A = Al2O3, N = Na2O, K = K2O, and C = CaO (all in molar proportion). The fields of literature data for adakite are from [65].
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Figure 7. (a) Primitive mantle-normalized diagrams and (b) chondrite-normalized REE patterns for the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry in western Yunnan. The gray bands represent data from the literature on Paleogene lamprophyres exposed in the study area [66,67,68,69,70,71]. The chondrite and primitive mantle normalization values are from [72].
Figure 7. (a) Primitive mantle-normalized diagrams and (b) chondrite-normalized REE patterns for the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry in western Yunnan. The gray bands represent data from the literature on Paleogene lamprophyres exposed in the study area [66,67,68,69,70,71]. The chondrite and primitive mantle normalization values are from [72].
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Figure 8. Initial 87Sr/86Sr(t) vs. εNd(t) diagram for samples from the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry in western Yunnan. The field for Eocene–Oligocene potassic felsic intrusions in western Yunnan is from [8,35,40]. The field for Cenozoic post-collisional potassic-ultrapotassic volcanic rocks in northern Tibet is from [73,74,75]. The field for Cenozoic post-collisional potassic-ultrapotassic volcanic rocks in southern Tibet is from [76,77,78,79]. The MORB, EM I, and EM Ⅱ mantle end-members are sourced from [80,81].
Figure 8. Initial 87Sr/86Sr(t) vs. εNd(t) diagram for samples from the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry in western Yunnan. The field for Eocene–Oligocene potassic felsic intrusions in western Yunnan is from [8,35,40]. The field for Cenozoic post-collisional potassic-ultrapotassic volcanic rocks in northern Tibet is from [73,74,75]. The field for Cenozoic post-collisional potassic-ultrapotassic volcanic rocks in southern Tibet is from [76,77,78,79]. The MORB, EM I, and EM Ⅱ mantle end-members are sourced from [80,81].
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Figure 9. Variation of initial Hf isotope values vs. the U-Pb ages of the zircons for the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry in western Yunnan. DM is depleted mantle, and CHUR is chondritic uniform reservoir. The gray fields represent episodes of major juvenile crustal growth in the Yangtze Craton [83,84,85], and yellow fields represent episodes of other Eocene–Oligocene porphyry deposits in western Yunnan [8,35,36].
Figure 9. Variation of initial Hf isotope values vs. the U-Pb ages of the zircons for the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry in western Yunnan. DM is depleted mantle, and CHUR is chondritic uniform reservoir. The gray fields represent episodes of major juvenile crustal growth in the Yangtze Craton [83,84,85], and yellow fields represent episodes of other Eocene–Oligocene porphyry deposits in western Yunnan [8,35,36].
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Figure 10. Variations in (a) TiO2 vs. SiO2, (b) Fe2O3T vs. SiO2, (c) CaO vs. SiO2, (d) P2O5 vs. SiO2, (e) MgO vs. SiO2, (f) Mg# vs. SiO2, (g) Ni vs. SiO2, and (h) Cr vs. SiO2 for the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry in western Yunnan. The classification curves of adakite are from [65].
Figure 10. Variations in (a) TiO2 vs. SiO2, (b) Fe2O3T vs. SiO2, (c) CaO vs. SiO2, (d) P2O5 vs. SiO2, (e) MgO vs. SiO2, (f) Mg# vs. SiO2, (g) Ni vs. SiO2, and (h) Cr vs. SiO2 for the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry in western Yunnan. The classification curves of adakite are from [65].
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Figure 11. Variations in (a) La vs. La/Yb and (b) La vs. La/Sm [100] for the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry in western Yunnan.
Figure 11. Variations in (a) La vs. La/Yb and (b) La vs. La/Sm [100] for the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry in western Yunnan.
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Figure 12. Variations in (a) Sr/Y vs. Y and (b) (La/Yb)N vs. YbN [114] for the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry in western Yunnan.
Figure 12. Variations in (a) Sr/Y vs. Y and (b) (La/Yb)N vs. YbN [114] for the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry in western Yunnan.
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Figure 13. Tectonic discrimination diagram (Y + Nb) vs. Rb plot [131] for the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry in western Yunnan. VAG = volcanic arc granite, syn-COLG = syn-collisional granite, WPG = within-plate granite, ORG = ocean-ridge granite, and post-COLG = post-collisional granite.
Figure 13. Tectonic discrimination diagram (Y + Nb) vs. Rb plot [131] for the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry in western Yunnan. VAG = volcanic arc granite, syn-COLG = syn-collisional granite, WPG = within-plate granite, ORG = ocean-ridge granite, and post-COLG = post-collisional granite.
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Figure 14. Genetic model for the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry, modified after Yang and Cao [15] and Wang et al. [131]. Shoshonitic/potassic mafic magma originates from the partial melting of a metasomatized sub-continental lithospheric mantle and underplates the lower crust. Subsequent continuous underplating triggers partial melting of the hybrid lower crust (comprising mantle-derived mafic underplates and pre-existing crust), forming adakite-like potassic rocks. MSCLM = metasomatized subcontinental lithospheric mantle; UC = Upper crust; LC = Lower crust; and GA = garnet amphibolite.
Figure 14. Genetic model for the Beiya alkali-rich porphyry, modified after Yang and Cao [15] and Wang et al. [131]. Shoshonitic/potassic mafic magma originates from the partial melting of a metasomatized sub-continental lithospheric mantle and underplates the lower crust. Subsequent continuous underplating triggers partial melting of the hybrid lower crust (comprising mantle-derived mafic underplates and pre-existing crust), forming adakite-like potassic rocks. MSCLM = metasomatized subcontinental lithospheric mantle; UC = Upper crust; LC = Lower crust; and GA = garnet amphibolite.
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Zhong, Y.; Yuan, Y.; Lu, Y.; Xia, B. Origin and Tectonic Implication of Cenozoic Alkali-Rich Porphyry in the Beiya Au-Polymetallic Deposit, Western Yunnan, China. Minerals 2025, 15, 531. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15050531

AMA Style

Zhong Y, Yuan Y, Lu Y, Xia B. Origin and Tectonic Implication of Cenozoic Alkali-Rich Porphyry in the Beiya Au-Polymetallic Deposit, Western Yunnan, China. Minerals. 2025; 15(5):531. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15050531

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhong, Yun, Yajuan Yuan, Ye Lu, and Bin Xia. 2025. "Origin and Tectonic Implication of Cenozoic Alkali-Rich Porphyry in the Beiya Au-Polymetallic Deposit, Western Yunnan, China" Minerals 15, no. 5: 531. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15050531

APA Style

Zhong, Y., Yuan, Y., Lu, Y., & Xia, B. (2025). Origin and Tectonic Implication of Cenozoic Alkali-Rich Porphyry in the Beiya Au-Polymetallic Deposit, Western Yunnan, China. Minerals, 15(5), 531. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15050531

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