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Article

Tracing the Source of Red Coral in Xinjiang: Evidence from the Western Han Dynasty Shengjindian Site in Turpan

by
Yiheng Xian
1,
Lifei Sun
1,
Hao Ai
1,2,*,
Jingwen Guo
1,
Yuchen Tan
1,*,
Francesca Monteith
1,
Zekun Li
1,
Jian Ma
1 and
Chun Yu
1
1
China-Central Asia “the Belt and Road” Joint Laboratory on Human and Environment Research, Key Laboratory of Cultural Heritage Research and Conservation, School of Culture Heritage, Northwest University, Xi’an 710127, China
2
Shaanxi Provincial Geological Survey Experiment Center, Xi’an 710065, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Minerals 2025, 15(3), 248; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15030248
Submission received: 28 January 2025 / Revised: 25 February 2025 / Accepted: 25 February 2025 / Published: 27 February 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gems Under the Microscope: New Insights into Mineral Structures and Properties)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
This study sheds light on the origin and trade routes of early red coral artifacts found in Xinjiang, primarily dating to the Han and Jin dynasties. The red coral relics examined, excavated from the Shengjindian cemetery of the Western Han Dynasty in Turpan, offer critical insights into the material’s provenance and its introduction to this pivotal region along the ancient Silk Road. Advanced gemological, mineralogical, and geochemical analyses—utilizing computed tomography (CT), laser Raman spectroscopy, and laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS)—has revealed distinctive features. These include red coloration, a waxy luster, concentric ring structures in cross-section, and calcareous composition, identifying the coral as Sardinian (Corallium rubrum), likely originating from the western Mediterranean region. The findings carry significant archaeological implications. Red coral first appears in the archaeological record in Xinjiang during the Western Han period, facilitated by the thriving Silk Road trade and the expanding influence of Buddhist culture. This study not only confirms the Mediterranean origin of these artifacts but also highlights their integration into the cultural and economic networks of ancient Xinjiang, underscoring the significance of early long-distance trade and cultural exchange.

1. Introduction

Red coral is an organic formed from the exoskeletons of micro-organisms; it is mainly composed of calcite and a small amount of organic matter. Red coral is formed by calcareous corals and is classified in biology in the phylum Cnidaria, class Anthozoa, subclass Octocorallia, order Alcyonacea, and family Coralliidae. This family includes three main types: Sardinian coral (Corallium rubrum), Momo coral (Pleurocorallium elatius), and Aka coral (Corallium japonicum) [1,2]. There are numerous historical sources of red coral, the most notable being the western Mediterranean region and western regions of the North Pacific Ocean, including Japan, the Midway Islands, the Philippines, and Taiwan. Due to its bright color, shiny appearance, and fine texture, coral has been appreciated by humans as a gemstone since the Neolithic period. It was collected, used, and traded as a precious commodity in regions of Asia and Europe [3]. Amulets and beads of red coral have been found at Iron Age (600–100 BC) sites in Central Europe. Study of the origins and use of red coral jewelry and artifacts are considered very important for understanding trade networks, as well as social and economic structures, from the Late Bronze Age to the modern period [3,4,5,6].
The earliest red coral artifacts in the archaeological record in China were excavated from a Neolithic site near the town of Xini in Hangjin Banner, Yimeng, Inner Mongolia [7]. However, it is not until the Han and Jin dynasties that the number of artefacts increases significantly. Although red coral artifacts have been found throughout China, including in sites in Gansu [8], Inner Mongolia [9], Guangdong [10], and Shanxi [11], most red coral artefacts have been excavated from sites in Xinjiang. The most abundant red coral finds in Xinjiang to date have been at the Niya site in Minfeng [12,13], the Taizang Pagoda Site in Turpan [14], and the Loulan Ancient City Ruoqiang [15]. The evidence that red coral appears primarily in the archaeological record in Xinjiang during this period is a matter that deserves consideration.
Extensive studies have been conducted by previous researchers to establish a comparative framework regarding the origins of red coral in the Xinjiang Region. Key indicators identified include barium, which is associated with the growth environment, as well as lithium and magnesium, which are related to water temperature and depth. Additionally, trace elements such as strontium and lead, in addition to other rare earth elements, have been recognized as important indicators of origin [16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26]. Although considerable progress has been made in identifying the provenance of modern coral, similar research into the origins and sources of ancient corals remains relatively scarce. To date, Chinese scholars have mainly relied on historical documents and textual analysis to trace the provenance of ancient red coral (cfr. Wu [13], Yang [27] and Liu [28]). A comprehensive review of ancient texts and other sources suggests that ancient Chinese red coral may have originated from regions such as the Mediterranean, passing through Central Asia before reaching China. Concersely, Zhao Quanpeng speculates that red coral in China may also have originated from the South China Sea or other regions of the Pacific Region [29]. Modern analyses on the provenance of these red corals have been conducted, only to a limited extent, by scholars from other universities [3,4].
As a rare resource in ancient times, red coral held commercial, cultural, and monetary value. By studying the arrival of red coral in Xinjiang, China, we can improve our understanding of where red coral came from and the cultural exchanges that led to its occourence in Xinjiang archaeological sites. This paper focuses on the red coral artifacts unearthed from the Shengjindian cemetery of the Western Han Dynasty in the Turpan region, a crucial point in the ancient trade networks of Xinjiang. Using modern gemological, mineralogical, and geochemical analyses of archaeological materials along with in-depth readings of historical records, this paper aims to identify the origins of early red coral in Xinjiang, China.

2. Sample Source and Sample Description

Samples for analysis were selected from artefacts excavated in the Shengjindian cemetery, located in Shengjin Village, Turpan City, Xinjiang. Shengjin is approximately 40 km west of Turpan City. The site, as it has been identified so far, has an elliptical shape, 42 m long from north to south and 23 m wide from east to west. Over thirty tombs have been identified within the site. Radiocarbon dating indicates that the Shengjindian cemetery dates to c. 2200 to 2050 BP, which roughly equates to the Western Han Dynasty. Its geographical location, within the area of activity of the ancient Cheshi people of the Western Regions along the northern route of the Silk Road, makes it an important window for studying material culture and cultural exchanges on the ancient Silk Road [30,31].
The burial area at the Shengjindian site was meticulously planned, with no evidence of disturbance or overlapping between tombs observed during excavation. The tombs are evenly distributed and arranged in an orderly manner, at intervals ranging from 3 to 8 m. The coral examined in this study was uncovered in Burial M11, located southwest of M8, southeast of M9, and east of M10, with a directional orientation of 302 degrees. At the entrance and on the ground surrounding the tomb, scattered mats made of reeds and lycium ruthenicum were found. The entrance to M11 was in the form of a vertical shaft, 2.15 m long, 0.84 m wide, and 1.38 m deep. The chamber itself had a depth of 0.6 m. There appear to have been three or four tomb occupants. Although incomplete, the presence at least one male and one female tomb occupant could be ascertained, while the bodies of the other occupants were too poorly preserved to be able to discern their gender. A total of forty-five burial goods were discovered, including thirty-nine wooden items, one piece of pottery, two leather products, one gold earring, one bone artifact, and seventy-three beads, of which eight beads were red coral [31,32]. Red coral artifacts were initially identified due to their vibrant colors and diverse shapes. The red coral artefacts were subsequently classified based on their forms, and four of the eight coral beads were selected for analysis. TSS40-1 and TSS40-4 are tubular bead ornaments, while TSS40-2 and TSS40-3 are proto-dendritic bead ornaments (Figure 1).
These archaeological samples were compared with modern red coral from the Gemstone Laboratory of the School of Cultural Heritage, Northwest University, Xi’an 710127, China. A total of four samples, two samples of Sardinian red coral NO13 and NO14 and two samples of Akha red coral NO9 and NO15, were analyzed in order to study the probable origin(s) of red coral found in Shengjindian cemetery (Figure 2).

3. Methodology

The basic gemological properties of the excavated red coral were analyzed at the School of Cultural Heritage, Northwest University, Xi’an 710127, China. The relative density of the gemstones was determined using the hydrostatic weighing method. Microscopic observations of the gemstones were conducted with a super-depth-of-field microscope (Model KH-7700, HIROX; (Hirox Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) optical zoom range: 50× to 400×). For the purpose of this study, a magnification range of 50× to 150× was employed to observe and capture images of the surface of the coral samples.
A Canon EOS 5DS R(Canon Inc., Tokyo, Japan) was used to photograph the samples. Microscopic computed tomography (micro-CT) imaging was conducted with a Zeiss Xradia 520 (Carl Zeiss AG, Oberkochen, Germany), utilizing a pixel size of 6.5 µm for specimen ELI-00312A and 5.8 µm for specimen ELI-00312B (TIFF images). The imaging process employed an accelerating voltage of 80 kV and a current of 88 µA. The micro-CT data were processed using ‘Dragonfly 4.0’ software. All figures were prepared using Photoshop CS9 [32].
Laser Raman spectroscopy tests were conducted at the Laser Raman Spectroscopy Laboratory of the State Key Laboratory of Continental Dynamics, Northwestern University. The analyses were performed using an InVia Laser Raman Spectrometer(Renishaw plc, Wotton-under-Edge, UK) equipped with an Ar-ion laser operating at a wavelength of 514.5 nm. A microscope with 500× magnification, a 20 μm grating slit, and three scan repetitions were employed during the testing.
The trace element compositions of the samples were analyzed at the State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan, China), using a laser-ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (LA-ICP-MS). The instrument setup included a Prodigy-type ICP from Leeman Labs (Leeman labs Inc., NeH, USA) and a UP266Macro-type laser with a 515 nm beam diameter from New-Wave (New-Wave Research, Fremont, CA, USA). The instrumental conditions and data processing methods followed those described by Liu et al. [33].

4. Test Results

4.1. Main Gemological Characteristics of Red Coral

The red corals from Shengjin exhibit a spectrum of red hues, including orange-red, medium-red, and deep-red. The relative density of the corals, measured using the hydrostatic weighing method, was found to range from 2.33 g/cm3 to 2.63 g/cm3. Microscopic examination of longitudinal sections revealed growth textures, with distinct ridge and groove structures on the surface. The transverse section displayed concentric lamellar and radial structures, characterized by noticeable granularity, and no white core was observed (Figure 3). CT analysis of the internal structure indicated that the overall internal composition of the corals is dense, with only limited pores observed (Figure 4).
By combining visual observation, microscopic analysis, and CT imaging (Table 1), it was determined that the coral had been shaped to enhance its color and morphology. Examination of the holes in the excavated red coral indicate the use of two distinct drilling techniques. For samples Tss40-1, Tss40-2, and Tss40-4, drilling was performed from both ends using a rotary motion drill; however, the shape of the drills differed slightly. The drilling profiles of samples Tss40-1 and Tss40-4 show evidence of a cylindrical drill bit, while Tss40-2 displays marks from a tapered drill bit. Sample Tss40-3, drilled at one end, also exhibits traces of a cylindrical drill bit similar to that used in Tss40-1. The use of varied drills and drilling techniques for different coral shapes suggests that craftsmen of the time employed a range of methods to make the best use of the raw materials.

4.2. Raman Spectral Characterization

Examination of the Raman spectra of the four red coral samples found in the Shengjindian cemetery (Figure 5) show peaks at 1019 cm−1 (weak), 1086 cm−1 (weak), 1132 cm−1 (very strong), 1300 cm−1 (weak), 1523 cm−1 (very strong), 2140 cm−1 (weak), 2255 cm−1 (moderate), 2535 cm−1 (weak), and 2637 cm−1 (moderate). The shoulder peak at 1086 cm−1 is attributed to the symmetric telescoping vibration of the [CO3]2− anion cluster in calcite, indicating that the coral sample is calcareous. The weak peak at 1019 cm−1 corresponds to the horizontal wobble vibration of -CH3 in carotenoids. The very strong peaks at 1132 cm−1 and 1523 cm−1 are associated with the polyolefinic chains of carotenoids, specifically the C=C (ν1) and C-C (ν1) vibrations. The weak peak at 1300 cm−1 is related to the C-H bending vibration. The moderate-intensity peaks at 2255 cm−1 and 2637 cm−1 are octave and synchronous peaks, respectively, influenced by the strong peaks mentioned above, with their positions corresponding to the number of C=C bonds in the polyolefin chains [34,35,36,37,38].

4.3. Trace Element Composition

The rare earth element concentrations (Table 2), the corresponding distribution curve (Figure 6), and the composition of other trace elements (Table 3) of the red coral samples from the Shengjindian cemetery site may all be used to investigate the provenance of these artefacts. Overall, the amount of rare earth elements in the Shengjindian corals is relatively low, with some elements (such as Eu, Gd, Tb, Tm, Yb, and Lu) falling below the instrument detection limit. The total rare earth element content (∑REE) ranges from 0.04 to 0.26, with a mean value of 0.12. The corals from Shengjindian are generally enriched in light rare earth elements (LREE), with the LREE/HREE ratio ranging from 0.898 to 15.13, with a mean average value of 7.27. Ce shows an overall positive anomaly, though some data show a negative anomaly, with δCe values ranging from 0.75 to 2.52 with a mean average of 1.26. Eu shows an overall negative anomaly, with δEu values ranging from 0.00 to 0.84.
Analyses of the trace element composition of modern Sardinian and Aka corals permitted further identification (Table 2, Figure 6). Statistical analysis of the results from previous tests indicates that the rare earth element concentrations in modern Sardinian corals are relatively low, with some elements, such as Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, and Dy, falling below the detection limit [16]. The ∑REE values range from 0.04 to 1.82, with a mean of 0.84. Sardinian corals are enriched in light rare earth elements, with the LREE/HREE ratio ranging from 2.93 to 21.01, and a mean of 8.58. The Ce element shows a distinct anomaly. Modern Aka corals also exhibit low rare earth element concentrations and are similarly enriched in light rare earth elements. The ∑REE for these corals ranges from 0.05 to 2.91 ppm, with an average of 0.84 ppm. The LREE/HREE ratio ranges from 1.93 to 21.01, with a mean of 8.58. The Ce element shows both positive and negative anomalies, with δCe values between 0.42 and 1.19 and an average of 0.82. The Eu element displays a clear negative anomaly, with δEu values ranging from 0.33 to 0.62 and an average of 0.52. The LREE/HREE ratio in the modern Aka corals ranges from 1.98 to 15.11, with a mean of 9.56. The anomaly patterns of Ce and Eu elements are not pronounced, with both positive and negative anomalies observed. The δCe values range from 0.41 to 2.22, with an average of 1.23, and the δEu values range from 0.88 to 1.45, with an average of 1.17.
The other elements present in the red corals excavated from the Shengjindian cemetery indicate that the primary impurity elements are Mg, Sr, and Ba. These three elements, along with Ca, belong to the alkaline earth metals, which share similar geochemical properties and can be incorporated into the calcite crystal lattice in a homogeneous form. The MgCO3 content in the red corals from the Shengjindian cemetery ranges from 8.11% to 10.24%, with an average value of 9.04%. This suggests that the calcite in the red coral is classified as high-magnesium calcite [39,40,41]. The elemental Sr content ranged from 2222.70 to 2542.72 ppm, with a mean value of 2431.89 ppm. In contrast, the Ba content was relatively low, ranging from 7.07 to 9.70 ppm, with a mean value of 8.17 ppm (Table 3).
Table 3. Composition of other major trace elements in red coral samples from the cemetery at Shengjindian.
Table 3. Composition of other major trace elements in red coral samples from the cemetery at Shengjindian.
OriginLiBNaMgAlSiKPMnZnSrBaPbUData Sources
ppmppmppmwt%ppmppmppmppmppmppmppmppmppmppm
Shengjindian cemetery4.4636.3437112.932.64781265.1 8.975.1525037.961.310.12This paper
2.9326.534882.951.08727178.48 6.724.2624397.890.950.07
3.0430.9637502.81.98680207.57 7.887.3825357.071.930.06
2.4222.5432892.450.27750305.03 0.832.0723857.671.570.06
1.9923.1334282.670.47721275.12 1.262.925437.751.730.05
2.0222.4229442.420.36681287.26 1.662.0422237.491.760.06
2.6216.5431202.631.28693244.94 6.328.0424369.341.740.06
2.3116.330622.431.6703225.32 4.005.124809.71.690.04
2.419.1232252.571.86736249.64 5.635.7124998.292.370.03
2.2724.5131382.342.68712276.8 6.323.2823688.0710.280.06
2.3625.1231512.521.68705287.47 64.5623978.4311.370.05
2.2526.6432982.551.22723287.67 5.854.2123758.3611.60.05
Modern Sardinian Coral3.2726.8337962.4443.91822255.49 12.527.66250215.3818.190.06This paper
2.652434102.5483.38872286.34 14.7738.23241814.5221.480.06
6.7520.0833062.735.48670148.47 11.4916.9122057.570.980.06
7.7221.6133072.721.91712129.45 19.5213.8720629.091.230.05
5.5619.6831372.6810.07686107.42 6.229.522997.750.530.04
1.9211.7128372.22 4349115.68147.46 25239.25 Yu Qidan, 2021 [42]
2.1818.1232402.24 4840109.80173.58 27449.71
4.0 42083.26 1241381.20.926348.30.370.10Vielzeuf, 2018 [43]
3.8 41062.92 1671401.20.424559.40.690.05
3.2 37582.74 1491291.4 26299.20.610.04
2.2 33852.65 1401101.3 25438.20.610.08
3.3 37643.16 191 1.128368.30.420.07
3.1 34803.04 3061.40.727198.30.510.06
2.9 36583.06 2630.81.828356.40.180.06
2.7 35562.93 2520.81.826936.40.610.03
2.8 36452.93 1570.80.526666.70.210.04
2.9 38533.16 1650.90.627646.30.500.03
3.1 34902.97 198 0.927188.40.450.07
4.0 42683.25 87 1.828587.90.290.14
2.7 34972.72 186 1.626928.50.420.06
5.2 37913.00 194 1.928049.50.880.16
2.8 35772.62 145 1.226958.90.2950.063
3.1 36052.78 155 2.026899.50.690.12
2.7 34872.60 166 1.425608.70.370.06
3.1 35552.86 166 1.826889.00.600.13
Modern Aka Coral2.6624.7632412.450.37629193.85 1.1443.09223112.989.380.07This paper
224.3830162.4515.83711265.1 7.0221.62226222.9261.010.32
1.9324.0730652.447.59740330.19 943.36222527.9383.30.25
1.7120.548712.538.32570326.84 3.23139.425356.282.870.08
1.6418.4246192.5710.1565238.71 2.86113.7726196.112.450.04
1.6516.9147232.4913.24645292.62 3.13136.7125096.872.920.06
1.9912.8228002.37 438690.21 23455.39 Yu Qidan, 2021
2.5512.6533632.48 463396.85 27545.24
2.4310.5440482.59 4790149.36 26004.67
1.7610.6428322.54 4973137.52 23374.71
2.3 35922.79 1401870.91.325755.10.040.04Vielzeuf, 2018
2.6 36712.79 1492.81.125435.60.060.09
2.4 35052.91 1442.80.924905.50.060.08
2.4 35962.96 1370.01.825594.90.070.04
2.5 33792.94 1910.91.426005.30.200.05
2.4 36272.90 1740.61.225404.90.050.04
2.4 36052.74 1630.61.125365.00.090.04
2.6 34022.73 1453.51.724715.60.070.08
3.5 40272.89 1711.32.126895.50.070.11
2.8 38092.86 1401.02.125305.60.140.07
3.1 41843.20 1190.51.827205.20.140.18
2.6 35232.83 1460.70.725075.00.120.04
2.5 37572.91 1640.61.525194.90.310.03
2.9 39112.99 91 2.526265.20.190.03
4.2 47063.27 109 2.228765.30.220.10
2.5 35232.79 121 1.924675.40.150.03
3.3 40083.12 108 1.826675.30.170.10
Modern Momo Coral1.719.4427892.40 4699 85.56252.37 28536.08 Yu Qidan, 2021
1.5910.6326682.19 4970 95.81262.67 27286.53
1.868.9229802.36 4975 96.05222.45 26775.25
1.758.7728012.48 4878 108.98252.72 26664.78
1.8 32242.50 1392870.81.127337.10.130.05Vielzeuf, 2018
3.6 42083.13 1462060.81.329486.70.100.25
1.7 33062.58 2720.65.127376.80.150.04
3.1 41763.80 2290.65.828716.80.120.15

5. Discussion

5.1. Species of Red Coral from Shengjindian Cemetery

The primary types of red corals known to date are calcareous corals, a classification that includes Sardinian coral, Aka coral, and Momo coral. Aka coral is characterized by indistinct growth bands and often features a white core that is not located on the central axis of the coral’s main structure. Momo coral is characterized by a lighter color, distinct growth patterns, and a white core located along the central axis of the main structure. In contrast, Sardinian coral has a relatively coarse texture, with clear growth bands and a uniform color, and lacks a white core. These features significantly distinguish the Sardinian coral from both the Aka and Momo corals [1,2,44,45,46,47].
According to the results of Raman spectroscopy analyses, the Raman peak near 1086 cm−1 is identified as the characteristic peak of calcite in the skeletal structure of red coral, while the peaks near 1132 cm−1 and 1523 cm−1 correspond to the characteristic peaks of carotenoids in red coral. These Raman spectral features are consistent with results reported in previous studies on red coral [34,35,36,37,38]. Both macroscopic and microscopic observations reveal the presence of concentric and radial structures in the cross-section, along with distinct parallel longitudinal striations on the surface. However, some of these features appear blurred, likely due to the polishing during the manufacture of the ornament or weathering from the underground burial environment. The absence of a white core and the overall characteristics strongly indicate that the Shengjindian corals are Sardinian coral [44,45,46,47].

5.2. Exploration of the Origin of Red Coral Excavated from Shengjindian Cemetery

The origins of different types of red corals are varied. Sardinian coral is found mainly in the western Mediterranean region, near the Strait of Gibraltar in the Atlantic, and around the Cape Verde Islands. Aka corals are distributed in the Pacific, specifically in waters surrounding Iwo Jidao Island in Japan, and Xiangmu Bay, the Xiaoliyuan Group, Hangjin Xinizhen Island and Taiwan Islands in China. Momo coral is predominantly found in the Pacific, along an area extending from the Wakayama and Ogasawara Islands in Japan to the northern South China Sea and the northern Philippines [1,17,48,49,50,51,52].
Theoretically rare earth elements composition of red coral can assist in identifying its origin [53]. However, both the data presented in this study and previous research demonstrate that the boundaries of rare earth element composition of different red coral types and origins are indistinct with significant ocerlap between the groups. As a result, the effectiveness of rare earth elements in distinguishing the origins of different types of coral is relatively limited. Conversely, since Ba concentration in red coral is influenced mainly by its growth environment and less by growth kinetics, it may represent a significant criterion for differentiating coral origin [22,40,41]. Based on the plot for different types of red corals (Figure 7), it can be observed that the Ba content in Sardinian coral is relatively high, between 15 and 18 ppm, while in Aka coral it is lower, between 4 and 7 ppm. Momo coral shows a Ba content slightly higher than that of Aka coral but significantly lower than that of Sardinian coral, with values concentrated between 8–10 ppm. These findings further support the use of Ba element composition upon which to distinguish the origins of both modern and historical corals (Figure 7).
The concentration of Li and Mg in coral is closely linked to the growth environment. Specifically, Mg content correlates positively with water temperature, while Li content shows an inverse relationship. In the Li-Ba-Mg ternary diagram, clear boundaries can be observed between different species of red coral, providing significant potential for Li-Ba-Mg content to be used to provenance the origins of red coral (Figure 8a) [20,21,22,23].
The test results indicate that the Ba content of the red coral found in the Shengjindian cemetery is closest to that of Sardinian coral (Figure 7), and the elemental composition of Li, Ba, and Mg also falls within the data range of Sardinian coral (Figure 8b). This not only further supports the classification of the red coral from Shengjindian cemetery as Sardinian coral, but also suggests that its formation environment and origin align with that of Sardinian coral, namely, most likely from the western Mediterranean region.

5.3. Studies on the Transport Routes of Western Mediterranean Region Sardinian Coral Transmission to Xinjiang, China

The Shengjindian cemetery has been dated to the Western Han period by both typological and C14 dating. The artefacts recovered during the excavation indicate that the cemetery belongs to the ancient Che Shi culture. The site is located in the Turpan Basin, a key oasis along the Silk Road in Xinjiang, within a region characterized by frequent interactions and exchanges between Eastern and Western populations and material cultures [30,31]. Regarded as an influential ancient group along the Silk Road during the Han Dynasty, the Che Shi people were frequently involved in early exchanges and cultural interactions among various ethnic groups in Xinjiang [54]. Red coral is recognized for its cultural, commercial, and monetary value. There is evidence for coral having been traded in Southern and Central Europe from the Iron Age onwards. As a precious marine gemstone, coral is relatively visisble within the archaeological record, and since it was often exchanged as a valuable commodity between nations, it has previously been used to trace ancient trade routes [4]. The red coral excavated from the Shengjindian cemetery, along with other red coral finds from Xinjiang, are likely products of interregional interactions. These corals may have served as currency or fulfilled other roles along the Silk Road. However, the reasons for the sudden increase in red coral finds in Xinjiang, the origins of these corals and the factors that may have accelerated their arrival in the region remain unclear.

5.3.1. Analysis of the Origin of Ancient Red Coral in Xinjiang in Literature

Detailed records of red coral are present in ancient Chinese literature. Historical documents indicate that a complex trade and exchange of red coral occurred between the East and the West during the Han and Jin dynasties. In the “Biography of the South China Sea Countries” within the Book of Liang, it is mentioned that the Tianzhu (Ancient India and other Indian subcontinent) “traded with the Great Qin (Ancient Roma) and Anxi (Parthian Empire) in the western seas, and many treasures of the Great Qin, such as coral, amber, gold, blue pearls, Lang, Yujin, and Suhe, were found” [55]. In the Book of Later Han: Biography of the Western Regions, it is documented that the Roman Empire (Great Qin) engaged in maritime trade with Parthia and India, yielding tenfold benefits [56].
Therefore, two historical facts can be deduced through the review of historical documents. First, coral was produced by the Roman Empire, and trade was conducted with foreign nations during this period, with knowledge of this trade being present in the Chinese courts of Southern Dynasties (420–589 AD). Second, various maritime transactions involving luxury goods, including coral, were engaged in between India and the Roman Empire. It is likely that the red coral of India and Pakistan mentioned in historical texts was imported from the Roman Empire.
This conclusion is supported by historical records from China’s Han and Jin dynasties. For instance, the Han Dynasty’s Records of Foreign Objects state that Persian coral was “the most precious treasure in the world, originating from the Persian kingdom” [57]. The production of coral and other products by the people of Jibin (modern-day Pakistan) is documented in the Book of Han, Biography of the Western Regions [58]. The locations mentioned in these historical materials were believed by ancient Chinese to be the sources of corals, with detailed records provided. However, in reality, neither Persia, India, nor Jibin is the origin of red corals. Therefore, historical texts at our disposal indicate where China acquired these goods from, rather than the true origin red corals. Consequently, the transmission path of red coral during the Han and Jin dynasties likely originated in the western Mediterranean region, passed through Central Asian countries such as Afghanistan, India, and Pakistan, before ultimately reaching Xinjiang, China.

5.3.2. Red Coral Trade Routes: Insights from Excavated Artifacts

Red corals have been found at several sites in Xinjiang. The first red corals in Xinjiang were found in the Dongtalede cemetery, dating back to the 9th century BC, located in the Altai Mountains. This is the only case of such finds in the region for that period (Figure 9) [59].
During the Han and Jin dynasties, a significant change occurred in the distribution of red coral in Xinjiang, which became concentrated on the periphery of the Tarim Basin. This distribution aligns with the northern and southern routes of the Silk Road. From the 4th centuries BCE–3rd centuries CE, red corals were predominantly found along the northern margins of the Tarim Basin [14,31,60]. However, from the 1st to the 5th centuries CE, the distribution of red corals shifted towards the southern margin of the Tarim Basin [15,61,62,63] (Figure 9).
This evidence suggests that corals arrived in Xinjiang through two distinct routes. First, the earliest red corals were primarily imported into Xinjiang from the Altai Mountains, a route that has long facilitated frequent exchanges among people. Many cultural relics unearthed in Turpan exhibit morphological characteristics identical to artifacts used by the people of the Altai region during the same period, such as the wooden mirror holders of the Bazerek culture and burial customs involving the placement of the head on a leather pillow [64].
During the Han and Jin periods, with the opening of the Silk Road, there was a noticeable increase in interregional interactions around the Tarim Basin. This led to a corresponding rise in the circulation of goods. The Silk Road is extensively documented in historical texts. This road network is well known for the discovery of numerous cultural relics from both the East and the West, which testify to the exchanges that took place between these cultures [65].
An analysis of the archaeological data suggests that the introduction of red coral into Xinjiang may have occurred along two main routes. The first of these probably passed through the Altai Mountains; this route had been established earlier and provided a relatively direct connection to the eastern part of Xinjiang, particularly the Turpan region. An increase in connectivity between the southwestern Tarim Basin and the South Asian subcontinent led to an extension of the Silk Road. This in turn appears to have led to an the increase in occurrence of red corals in the archaeological records of the Tarim Basin in southern Xinjiang.
The route through the Altai Mountains is clearly documented in studies of early east-west communication routes and is referred to as the ‘Grassland Silk Road’ [66]. This route traversed from the eastern Mediterranean or Western Asia, passing through the Seven Rivers region and the Sayan-Altai Mountains in Central Asia, providing a relatively direct connection to Xinjiang. This important corridor, which spans the Eurasian steppe, played a crucial role as one of the primary routes for early interregional exchanges with Xinjiang (3000–200 BCE) [67,68,69]. However, the occurence of red corals in Southern Xinjiang in sites dating back to later periods strongly indicates these corals were more likely transported via the maritime ‘spice routes’ from West to South Asia and then across the Tianshan Mountains into Xinjiang (200 BCE–500 CE) [70,71].
Based on the aforementioned analysis, it is evident that the temporal and spatial distribution of red coral cultural relics in Xinjiang indicates the presence of distinct routes being more prominent in different periods, which can be categorized into two primary pathways: northern and southern.

5.3.3. Analysis of the Influence of Buddhist Culture

The red corals excavated from the Shengjindian cemetery exhibit shapes similar to those unearthed from the Indian-Pakistani subcontinent. Furthermore, most of the red corals discovered in the Indian-Pakistani subcontinent during the Han Dynasty were associated with Buddhism, as exemplified by those found in the Taxila Stupa Dharmarajika (1st–2nd centuries CE) [72], Vaishali (1st century BCE–3rd century CE) [73], Bir-kot-ghwandai (c. 2nd century BCE to 2nd century CE) [74].
Corals in the early historic periods of the Indo-Pakistani subcontinent were not red, and the earliest discovered coral bead ornaments date back to 2000 BC. These ornaments were lighter in color than Western corals and were shaped like barrels or cylinders. However, with the Roman conquest of the Mediterranean under the Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty (304–30 BCE), the emergence of Greece and Hellenistic influences in Central and South Asia, and the onset of the Western red coral trade, indigenous corals in India were replaced by Western red ones [75].
Ancient Indian epic and religious literature used two distinct Sanskrit terms to describe corals, chronologically vidruma and pravala. The term vidruma conveys the anomalous characteristics of corals and their uncertain biological classification, which may indirectly correspond to the initial rejection and gradual acceptance of local corals by traditional elites along the Indus River around 2000 BCE. In contrast, the term pravala neutrally denotes the plant-like aspects of coral branches, aligning more closely with the widespread popularity and rapid spread of bright red coral branches during early historical periods. Additionally, pravala is associated with elemental spirits such as Yakshas, Nagas, and Apsaras, referring to dwarves or primary elves in nature, which may reflect the interest of early Buddhism in this fundamental material [72].
Some of the red coral artifacts excavated from the Shengjindian cemetery have preserved the original morphological characteristics of corals. This aligns closely with the later descriptions of coral in the lexicon of ancient India. Consequently, it is speculated that Sardinian coral, imbued with certain Buddhist symbols in the subcontinent, accelerated its circulation and was introduced to Xinjiang, China, following the opening of the Silk Road. Its transmission path may have been consistent with that of Buddhism.
Furthermore, based on the previous analysis of red coral sources, it has been determined that red coral was likely introduced to Xinjiang through three distinct pathways: the Grassland Silk Road passing through the Sayan Altai region, the Silk Road South centered on Khotan, and the Silk Road North centered on Kucha (Figure 10).

6. Conclusions

Gemological and geological analyses indicate that the red corals found in Shengjindian cemetery correspond to Sardinian red coral.
Geochemical composition analysis reveals that the Ba content of these corals is significantly high, consistent with that of Sardinian coral. Furthermore, within the Li-Ba-Mg ternary diagram, the analyzed samples fall within the Sardinian coral interval, suggesting a high probability of origin from the western Mediterranean region.
Based on the analysis of historical documents, excavated cultural relics, and the influence of Buddhist culture, the transmission path of red coral from the Shengjindian cemetery may be associated with the Grassland Silk Road or the exchange routes through South Asia to China. However, considering the evidence from the analysis, red corals in Xinjiang during the later periods likely experienced more frequent exchanges via routes from the western Mediterranean region to South Asia and subsequently to Xinjiang, China.
The Sardinian red coral found at the Shengjindian cemetery provides valuable insights into multiple trade routes along the ancient Silk Road. This discovery highlights the importance of red coral, as a precious commodity, in the study of ancient populations and cultural exchanges.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Y.X.; methodology, Y.X., L.S. and F.M.; validation, L.S., H.A. and J.G.; formal analysis, Y.X., Y.T. and J.M.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.X., L.S. and H.A.; writing—review and editing, Y.X., L.S., F.M., H.A, Z.L. and C.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This reseach was funded by National Key R&D Program of China, grant number 2022YFE0203800.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors on request.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Wang Long from Turpan Museum and Liu Qiutong from Northwest University for their guidance on the paper and research.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Red coral samples excavated from Shengjindian cemetery: (a)—TSS40-1; (b)—TSS40-2; (c)—TSS40-3; (d)—TSS40-4.
Figure 1. Red coral samples excavated from Shengjindian cemetery: (a)—TSS40-1; (b)—TSS40-2; (c)—TSS40-3; (d)—TSS40-4.
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Figure 2. Modern red coral samples: (a)—NO9; (b)—NO15; (c)—NO13; (d)—NO14.
Figure 2. Modern red coral samples: (a)—NO9; (b)—NO15; (c)—NO13; (d)—NO14.
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Figure 3. Ultra-depth-of-field microscopic images of red coral samples from the cemetery of Shengjindian: (a)—Sample TSS40-1 surface structure; (b)—Sample TSS40-1 cross-section; (c)—Sample TSS40-2 surface structure; (d)—Sample TSS40-2 cross-section; (e)—Sample TSS40-3 surface structure; (f)—Sample TSS40-3 borehole enlargement; (g)—Sample TSS40-4 surface structure; (h)—Sample TSS40-4 surface structure.
Figure 3. Ultra-depth-of-field microscopic images of red coral samples from the cemetery of Shengjindian: (a)—Sample TSS40-1 surface structure; (b)—Sample TSS40-1 cross-section; (c)—Sample TSS40-2 surface structure; (d)—Sample TSS40-2 cross-section; (e)—Sample TSS40-3 surface structure; (f)—Sample TSS40-3 borehole enlargement; (g)—Sample TSS40-4 surface structure; (h)—Sample TSS40-4 surface structure.
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Figure 4. CT images of red coral extracted from Shengjindian cemetery.
Figure 4. CT images of red coral extracted from Shengjindian cemetery.
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Figure 5. Raman spectra of red coral samples from the cemetery of Shengjindian.
Figure 5. Raman spectra of red coral samples from the cemetery of Shengjindian.
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Figure 6. Rare earth element partition curves comparing red corals excavated from Shengjindian cemetery, modern Sardinian coral, and modern Aka coral.
Figure 6. Rare earth element partition curves comparing red corals excavated from Shengjindian cemetery, modern Sardinian coral, and modern Aka coral.
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Figure 7. Box plot of Ba element in red coral (data source from this article, Yu Qidan, 2021 [42] and Vielzeuf, 2018 [43]).
Figure 7. Box plot of Ba element in red coral (data source from this article, Yu Qidan, 2021 [42] and Vielzeuf, 2018 [43]).
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Minerals 15 00248 g008
Figure 8. (a) Ba-Mg-Li ternary diagram of red corals of different origins (data source from this article, Yu Qidan, 2021 [42] and Vielzeuf, 2018 [43]); (b) Li-Ba-Mg ternary diagram of red coral from Shengjindian cemetery.
Figure 8. (a) Ba-Mg-Li ternary diagram of red corals of different origins (data source from this article, Yu Qidan, 2021 [42] and Vielzeuf, 2018 [43]); (b) Li-Ba-Mg ternary diagram of red coral from Shengjindian cemetery.
Minerals 15 00248 g008
Minerals 15 00248 g009
Figure 9. Red coral site from the Western Zhou to Jin Dynasties, excavated in Xinjiang.
Figure 9. Red coral site from the Western Zhou to Jin Dynasties, excavated in Xinjiang.
Minerals 15 00248 g009
Minerals 15 00248 g010
Figure 10. Route map of red coral spreading into Xinjiang.
Figure 10. Route map of red coral spreading into Xinjiang.
Minerals 15 00248 g010
Table 1. Main gemological properties of red coral samples found in the Shengjindian Cemetery.
Table 1. Main gemological properties of red coral samples found in the Shengjindian Cemetery.
Sample NumberStructureColourTransparencyGlossDensity (g/cm3)Observation FeaturesCT Characterization
TSS40-1tubulardark redopaquewaxy luster2.33Both ends were drilled, and the surface was cut and polished; however, the growth texture remained visible, and subelliptical pits were evident (Figure 3a). No white core was observed in the cross-section (Figure 3b).The structure is dense, with few pores on one side and boreholes at both ends. The surface exhibits a distinctive ridge and groove structure.
TSS40-2original branched shapetangerineopaquewaxy luster2.37The branches were truncated and drilled at both ends, with a distinct growth texture and erosion marks observable on the surface (Figure 3c). No white cores were present in the cross-section (Figure 3d).The structure is dense, with holes drilled at both ends and a few additional holes adjacent to the drilled areas.
TSS40-3original branched shapedark redopaquewaxy luster2.63The branches of the coral are arranged in a single plane and were worked from the coral branches, resulting in a smooth surface with localized areas where the growth texture remains visible (Figure 3e). Subelliptical pits are distributed across the surface, with rounded drill marks observed at the lower end of the main stem of the coral’s vertical mesosoma (Figure 3f). No white core is visible in the cross-section (Figure 3g).The structure is dense, with boreholes visible at the center of the coral branches and at one end. Pores are also present.
TSS40-4tubularredopaquewaxy luster2.37The coral was drilled from at both ends, with the growth texture partially visible on the surface. Subelliptical pits and etiolated holes are evident (Figure 3h). No white cores are visible in the cross-section.The coral is drilled at both ends and exhibits a dense internal structure, with only a few pores present.
Table 2. Characterization of the rare earth element composition of red coral samples from Shengjindian cemetery (×10−6).
Table 2. Characterization of the rare earth element composition of red coral samples from Shengjindian cemetery (×10−6).
Source LaCePrNdSmEuGdTbDyHoErTmYbLuδEuδCeLREEHREEL/HREE∑REE
Shengjindian cemetery0.060.100.010.060.010.000.000.000.010.000.010.000.000.00 0.990.240.0215.110.26
0.040.060.010.040.020.010.000.000.000.000.010.000.000.00 0.860.170.0113.520.18
0.030.070.000.020.010.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.010.00 2.520.130.027.630.15
0.010.020.000.010.010.000.020.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.580.750.050.022.280.07
0.000.010.000.010.010.010.000.000.000.000.010.000.000.00 0.040.015.700.05
0.000.010.000.000.010.000.020.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.00 0.020.020.880.04
0.020.030.000.010.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.00 0.930.070.00 0.07
0.010.030.000.020.010.000.010.000.000.000.010.000.000.000.001.760.080.023.730.10
0.000.040.010.040.000.000.020.000.010.000.000.000.000.00 1.480.090.033.350.12
0.030.060.000.000.010.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.010.00 1.210.110.0115.130.12
0.040.060.010.010.010.000.020.000.020.000.000.000.000.000.840.770.120.042.850.17
0.020.050.000.040.000.000.010.000.000.000.000.000.000.00 1.330.110.019.770.12
Modern Sardinian Coral0.370.870.080.300.020.010.040.010.010.000.010.000.000.000.621.191.650.0821.011.73
0.370.720.070.410.060.010.070.010.040.000.030.000.020.000.601.061.640.189.191.82
0.070.060.010.040.040.000.030.000.030.000.010.000.000.000.330.590.220.073.290.29
0.080.050.010.100.020.010.000.010.020.000.010.000.010.00 0.420.270.046.480.31
0.010.020.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.010.00 0.820.030.012.930.04
Modern Aka Coral0.030.110.010.000.000.000.000.000.010.000.010.000.000.00 1.310.160.029.060.17
0.241.000.050.250.040.030.090.000.040.020.010.000.030.011.452.221.610.207.921.81
0.501.500.080.410.110.030.080.020.080.020.030.010.050.010.881.702.630.289.282.91
0.010.010.000.030.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.00 0.410.050.0015.110.06
0.000.010.000.010.000.010.010.000.000.000.000.000.000.00 0.040.021.980.05
0.020.010.000.020.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.00 0.490.050.0014.010.05
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Xian, Y.; Sun, L.; Ai, H.; Guo, J.; Tan, Y.; Monteith, F.; Li, Z.; Ma, J.; Yu, C. Tracing the Source of Red Coral in Xinjiang: Evidence from the Western Han Dynasty Shengjindian Site in Turpan. Minerals 2025, 15, 248. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15030248

AMA Style

Xian Y, Sun L, Ai H, Guo J, Tan Y, Monteith F, Li Z, Ma J, Yu C. Tracing the Source of Red Coral in Xinjiang: Evidence from the Western Han Dynasty Shengjindian Site in Turpan. Minerals. 2025; 15(3):248. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15030248

Chicago/Turabian Style

Xian, Yiheng, Lifei Sun, Hao Ai, Jingwen Guo, Yuchen Tan, Francesca Monteith, Zekun Li, Jian Ma, and Chun Yu. 2025. "Tracing the Source of Red Coral in Xinjiang: Evidence from the Western Han Dynasty Shengjindian Site in Turpan" Minerals 15, no. 3: 248. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15030248

APA Style

Xian, Y., Sun, L., Ai, H., Guo, J., Tan, Y., Monteith, F., Li, Z., Ma, J., & Yu, C. (2025). Tracing the Source of Red Coral in Xinjiang: Evidence from the Western Han Dynasty Shengjindian Site in Turpan. Minerals, 15(3), 248. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15030248

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