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Article

Did a Late Paleoproterozoic-Early Mesoproterozoic Landmass Exist in the Eastern Cathaysia Block? New Evidence from Detrital Zircon U-Pb Geochronology and Sedimentary Indicators

by
Renbo Huang
1,3,
Zhiyuan He
2,3,* and
Johan De Grave
2
1
School of Environment & Resource, Xichang University, Xichang 615000, China
2
Laboratory for Mineralogy and Petrology, Department of Geology, Ghent University, Krijgslaan 281 S8, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
3
State Key Laboratory for Mineral Deposits Research, School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Minerals 2022, 12(10), 1199; https://doi.org/10.3390/min12101199
Submission received: 27 August 2022 / Revised: 16 September 2022 / Accepted: 20 September 2022 / Published: 23 September 2022
(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Geochemistry and Geochronology)
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Abstract

:
The South China Craton comprises the Yangtze and Cathaysia blocks and is one of the largest Precambrian continental blocks in East Asia. However, the early geological and geographical evolution of the Cathaysia block is relatively poorly understood, due to the sparse exposure of pre-Neoproterozoic rocks and reworking during Phanerozoic polyphase magmatism and metamorphism. In this contribution, we carried out detrital zircon U-Pb geochronology and sedimentary analyses on five Proterozoic meta-sedimentary rocks collected from the northeastern Cathaysia block, which belong to the previously defined Chencai, Mayuan, and Mamianshan Groups (strata). LA-ICP-MS U-Pb dating results of the detrital zircons show various ~1.85–1.35 Ga maximum depositional ages. They are significantly older than the previously constrained Neoproterozoic formation ages of these Proterozoic strata of northeastern Cathaysia, suggesting that their deposition and formation were probably initiated as early as the late Paleoproterozoic. Provenance analyses reveal that the late Paleoproterozoic to early Mesoproterozoic detrital zircons with igneous-origin were derived from in situ contemporary crystalline basements in eastern Cathaysia. In addition, by implication, the easternmost part of Cathaysia was probably an emerged area (i.e., the “proto-Cathaysia Land”) under active erosion. It had a ~NWW orientation and provided detrital sediments to the neighboring marine basin (i.e., the Cathaysia Sea) during the late Paleoproterozoic to early Mesoproterozoic. Finally, the Paleoproterozoic evolution of Cathaysia was involved in the assembly of the Nuna supercontinent. Our results, together with the published data, reveal a distinct late Paleoproterozoic (~1.8 Ga) detrital zircon age peak, which seems to support the view that eastern Cathaysia had close tectonic affinities with terranes such as the Precambrian terranes of current northern India, in the framework of the Nuna supercontinent reconstruction.

1. Introduction

The South China Craton is composed of two major continental blocks—the Yangtze block in the northwest and the Cathaysia block in the southeast (Figure 1A); both are characterized by widely distributed Precambrian basement rocks [1,2,3]. As an important component in East Asia, South China plays a key role in the construction of the global tectonic system, particularly during the Precambrian [4,5,6]. It is widely accepted that these two continental fragments were involved in the long-term and multi-stage evolution of the Nuna and Rodinia supercontinents during the Proterozoic. During recent decades, a series of paleogeographic reconstructions have been suggested for the South China Craton with regard to these supercontinent reconstructions, based on massive geochronological, geochemical and geographic data [7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14]. During the early Neoproterozoic, the South China Craton was formed by the amalgamation of the two aforementioned blocks along the Jiangnan orogenic belt [8,15,16,17,18,19] (Figure 1A). Therefore, the geological and geographical evolution of South China in Earth’s history are topics of wide interest in reconstructing the paleo-geography of global continental fragments and surface environments.
Although widely explored, the pre-Paleozoic geography of the South China Craton is still controversial, particularly that of the eastern part of the Cathaysia block and the southeastern margin of the Yangtze block. Regarding the latter, some authors proposed that its southeastern margin was a basin with active deposition during the late Neoproterozoic to the early Paleozoic, based on the occurrence of a variety of sequences sets [25,26,27,28]. Other researchers suggested that the southeastern Yangtze block represented the foreslope of the Yangtze platform, based on analysis of platform and slope facies sediments exposed in the Wuyishan fold belt [29,30]. A continental slope—continental rise—marine basin has also been proposed [31]. The eastern Cathaysia block has been considered by some authors to be an emerged area under erosion in the Neoproterozoic, based on small-scale field mapping [22,32]. Some later studies, however, suggested that a large part of this block was, in fact, subsiding and was a marine basin during the Neoproterozoic and Cambrian–Early Ordovician [33,34,35,36]. A depositional environment in western Cathaysia and an emerged region in eastern Cathaysia have also been suggested [37,38]. In short, the early paleogeographic evolution of the Cathaysia block is poorly understood; the majority of previous studies focused on its basement characteristics, crustal reworking, and tectonic affinity with other terranes/blocks [39,40,41,42,43,44]. Only very limited attention has been paid to the Proterozoic sedimentary environment and the landscape configuration of the Cathaysia block [45,46,47], leaving essential gaps in our knowledge that we aim to address in this study.
Detrital zircons from clastic sediments are important indicators for sediment source areas [48,49,50]. On the one hand, the detrital zircon U-Pb age spectra can constrain the (maximum) depositional age of the strata and pinpoint provenance features, such as magmatic events that have occurred in the source areas. On the other hand, directional sedimentary structures and paleocurrent data preserved in the clastic rocks can be used to define sediment transport directions and the sense of facies changes [51,52]. In this article, we studied several Proterozoic meta-sedimentary rocks from the Chencai, Mayuan, and Mamianshan Groups in the central Zhejiang and northern Fujian Provinces, in the northeastern Cathaysia block. In order to better clarify their depositional ages, which remain controversial [43,53,54]), we conducted detrital zircon laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) U-Pb dating on five representative samples collected from these deformed or metamorphosed sediments. Combined with analysis of directional structures and paleocurrent data measured in the field, we aimed to better understand the early paleogeography of the eastern South China Craton, especially regarding its landscape configuration.

2. Geological Background

The South China Craton is one of the largest Precambrian continental blocks in East Asia. It is tectonically divided into two distinct domains, i.e., the Yangtze and Cathaysia blocks, which are separated by the Neoproterozoic Jiangnan orogen [15,16,17,55,56] (Figure 1A,B). The present boundary between the Yangtze and Cathaysia blocks is the ~NE-trending Jiangshan–Shaoxing fault in eastern South China (Figure 1B). However, the southwestern extension of this fault is not clear, due to poor exposure of Precambrian lithologies. The Yangtze and Cathaysia blocks have different Precambrian crystalline basements and underwent diverse tectono-magmatic events [5,13,57]. The Precambrian basements of the Yangtze block range from Archean to Proterozoic in age. Minor Archean tonalite–trondhjemite–granodiorite (TTG) suites and metamorphosed igneous and sedimentary successions are sporadically exposed along the western and northern margins of this block, and the formation age of the oldest rocks (the Kongling complex) were dated at ~3.4–2.9 Ga by zircon U-Pb dating on the TTG gneisses [58,59]. Proterozoic rocks are widespread in the Yangtze block, mainly including Meso-Neoproterozoic meta-sedimentary and magmatic rocks in its southeastern margin [9,60,61], and ~1.7–0.8 Ga metamorphosed volcanic and sedimentary units exposed at the southwestern margin [62,63,64].
The Precambrian basement rocks of the Cathaysia block are mainly distributed in its northeastern part (Figure 1B), largely occurring as tectonic windows covered by Mesozoic felsic volcanics or intruded by granitoids [40,65]. To date, Archean rocks have not been recognized from outcrops in the Cathaysia block, although inherited or xenocrystic zircons with >~2.5 Ga U-Pb ages occur in Proterozoic and younger igneous and sedimentary rocks [66,67]. Large areas of the Cathaysia block are covered by late Neoproterozoic and Phanerozoic sedimentary rocks, as well as Paleozoic to Mesozoic magmatic rocks. Only limited pre-Neoproterozoic basement outcrops have been reported [41]. A large amount of these Precambrian rocks experienced greenschist–amphibolite facies metamorphism, and some late Neoproterozoic to Ordovician sandstone–mudstone slaty sequences underwent lower grade metamorphism [39,40,54,65].
The oldest rocks exposed in the Cathaysia block are minor Paleoproterozoic igneous suites that belong to the Badu Complex, which is mainly composed of metamorphosed granitoids and supracrustal rocks. The formation age of the granitoids was established at the Paleoproterozoic (>~1.9 Ga). They experienced two-staged high-grade (up to granulite facies) metamorphism first in the Proterozoic at ~1890 and later in the Mesozoic at ~230 Ma [65,68,69,70]. In the northeastern Cathaysia block, the Chencai and Mayuan Groups were considered to be equivalents of the Badu Complex [71,72], but recent isotopic data suggest a Neoproterozoic formation age for these rocks [73,74,75].
The Chencai Group dominantly comprises amphibolite and gneiss with interlayers of leptynite, schist, marble, and quartzite. It displays high grade metamorphism of amphibolite facies with intense migmatization [21,76]. Based on the geochemical features of the Chencai Group, it is suggested that the sedimentary protoliths were deposited in a continental shelf to shallow marine platform environment. In addition, in the study area (central Zhejiang Province), limestones with turbidite facies were recognized, indicative of a deeper marine depositional environment [21,76].
The Mayuan Group crops out over a large surface in our study area and mainly comprises terrigenous clastic meta-sediments that underwent low- to medium-grade metamorphism. The Mayuan Group can further be divided into two formations, i.e., the Dajinshan and Nanshan Formations. The former contains granulite facies garnet–kyanite-bearing schist and (fine-grained) gneiss, which have been intensively affected by anataxis. The Nanshan Formation is dominantly composed of strongly deformed biotite gneiss and biotite–quartz schists that were considered to have been derived from sedimentary protoliths with minor volcano-sedimentary rocks [43,75,77]. In the northern Fujian Province, the pre-Paleozoic metamorphic strata also include the Mamianshan Group, and it is further divided into the Daling, Longbeixi, and Dongyan Formations. The Daling Formation mainly consists of fine-grained gneiss and small amounts of mica and quartz schists, which were interpreted to originate from volcanic rocks and sediments [75,77,78].

3. Sampling and Sedimentary Structure Analysis

Fieldwork in the northeastern Cathaysia block, both the central Zhejiang and northern Fujian Provinces, was performed. Representative quartz schist and meta-sandstone (foliated sandstone showing low-grade metamorphism) samples were taken from the Chencai Group near the Wufeng and Dalin towns (Figure 1C,D). Two schist samples were collected from the Mayuan Group near Pucheng city, and one schist sample from the Daling Formation was taken from the east of Yanping city, in northernmost Fujian (Figure 1B; Table 1).
Syn-sedimentary depositional and paleocurrent structures were recorded. This data includes syn-depositional folds and faults, cross-bedding, and ripple marks. More specifically, foreset laminae in cross-bedding strata, axial fold planes, and limbs of syn-depositional folds (Table 2) were studied. For tilted structures, tilt or dip corrections were performed using the Stereonet software (version 8.0) [79,80]. In this regard, the original transport directions are determined by the corrected dip directions of foreset laminae in (unidirectional) cross-bedding features [45,81,82]. The slump direction of the sediments can generally be reconstructed by the opposite of the corrected dip direction of the axial plane in a syn-depositional fold [83,84]. In some cases, the lateral boundary of differential lithofacies is approximately perpendicular to the direction of facies changes [45,46]. In order to present a more concise dataset, the measured directional structures or paleocurrent data that share the same GPS positions and stratigraphic horizons were given an identical code (e.g., CBC01; Table 2).
A total of four datasets were obtained from the northeastern Cathaysia block, including two categories of directional structures (i.e., foreset laminae; axial planes of syn-depositional folds). All three of these cross-bedding-related indicators were recognized and measured in the meta-quartz sandstones from the Chencai Group (codes CBC01-03). The cross-beddings observed display sets whose thickness generally ranged from ~6 to ~20 cm, and contained gentle arc-shaped unidirectional foreset laminae tangential to the underlying bedding plane (Figure 2C,E). Their corrected dip directions were within the range of 288°-N-3° (Table 2), suggesting that the siliciclastic sediments of the Chencai stratigraphic strata (northeastern margin of the Cathaysia block) were transported toward a ~NWW-N-NNE orientation. Syn-depositional folds (with both overlying and underlying strata not deformed by folding) mainly occur in the quartz-mica schist of the Mayuan Group (Figure 2F). The corrected dip directions of the axial planes within these folds (SFoC01) range from 109° to 119° (Table 2), suggesting a ~NWW slump direction.

4. Zircon U-Pb Dating

4.1. Analytical Procedures

Five rock samples were crushed (jaw crusher), grinded (disc-mill), and wet- and dry-sieved until a suspension-free fraction between 60 µm and 250 µm was obtained. Zircon grains were separated using conventional heavy liquid and magnetic techniques. As the dated crystals are from meta-sedimentary rocks, typically around 200 to 300 grains were handpicked (under a binocular microscope), depending on the amount and quality of crystals available. Zircons were mounted in epoxy resin, then grinded (using SiC papers) and polished (using diamond suspension) to approximately half-section thickness to expose internal grain sections. Transmitted and reflected light micrographs and cathodoluminescence (CL) images were acquired and used to target spots suitable for U-Pb dating, avoiding micro-inclusions and micro-cracks. Cathodoluminescence (CL) imagery of zircons was undertaken at the Nanjing Hongchuang Geological Service on a Mono CL3 + System.
Laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) analyses were conducted at the State Key Laboratory for Mineral Deposits Research (Nanjing University), using an Agilent 7500s ICP—MS attached to a New Wave 213 nm laser ablation system with an in-house sample cell. During the experiments, approximately 1 min was spent measuring gas blank and the results indicated sensitivities of less than 1000 counts per second (cps) for all measured isotopes. In order to ensure the stability of instrument set-up and to control analytical errors, an internal zircon standard GEMOC GJ-1 (twice) (207Pb/206Pb age of 608.5 ± 1.5 Ma) [85] and an external zircon standard Mud Tank (once) (intercept age of 732 ± 5 Ma) [86] were analyzed before and after each tenth analysis of unknown samples. All laser spot analyses were carried out using a repetition rate of 5 Hz or 7 Hz, and the ablation time was 90 s. The laser ablation spot sizes were 24 μm or 32 μm in diameter, depending on the size of the zircon grains. U-Pb ages were calculated from the raw data using the software package GLITTER (ver. 4.4) [87]. Common Pb correction was carried out using the Microsoft Excel® embedded program ComPbCorr#3_15G. The solutions proposed in this package involved a numerical methodology to a series of equations. They relate the content of radiogenic lead in a zircon to its total lead content, the initial crystallization age, the amount of common lead present, the lead loss age, and the amount of lead lost in that process [88]. Uncertainties were quoted at 1σ for individual analyses and at 2σ (with 95% confidence level) for weighted mean ages. The age calculations and Concordia diagrams were made using Isoplot/Excel version 4.0 software [89].

4.2. Zircon Characteristics and Dating Results

4.2.1. Chencai Group (Zw-1 and Zd-3)

Zircon grains from sample Zw-1 were generally subhedral in shape with aspect ratios of ~2–2.5; CL images showed that a majority of the dated zircons had typical two-layered core-rim structures (Figure 3A). A total of 96 zircons from this sample were analyzed, and 109 concordant U-Pb ages ranging from ~2930 Ma to ~446 Ma were obtained. These defined five age peaks at ~448 Ma, ~710 Ma, ~1352 Ma, ~1994 Ma, and ~2456 Ma (Figure 4A). Based on zircon U-Pb ages and CL images, the analyses were sub-divided into three groups. The first group was represented by the ~453–446 Ma over-growth rims, which were characterized by chaotic texture and very low Th/U ratios of below 0.01 (Figure 3A; Supplementary Material Table S1), indicative of a metamorphic origin [90,91]. Similarly, the second group contained four ~718–684 Ma rims; these overgrowths showed quite different zoning (e.g., much darker colors; Figure 3A), compared with the cores. Although showing homogeneous dark CL images that seemed to reflect a metamorphic origin as well, these overgrowths were quite narrow and their Th/U ratios were relatively high, compared with typical metamorphic zircons (~0.02–0.17; Table S1). Therefore, the obtained results more likely represented mixing ages between two different parts of the dated zircons and were probably meaningless. The third group was composed of a large number of old Mesoproterozoic to Mesoarchean zircon cores (>~1.35 Ga); they generally displayed clear oscillatory zoning suggestive of igneous origins, with their youngest age peak at ~1352 Ma (Figure 4A).
For sample Zd-3 (Chencai Group), 114 zircon grains were chosen, and a total of 118 concordant ages were acquired (Table S1). Most zircons had subhedral shapes with aspect ratios of ~1 to 2; their relatively clear oscillatory zoning with very narrow dark rims indicated original magmatic sources [90,92] (Figure 3B). The majority of the obtained concordant U-Pb ages were Paleoproterozoic, with an earliest major Paleoproterozoic age peak (~2489 Ma) and three minor peaks at ~2243 Ma, ~2025 Ma, and ~1823 Ma, respectively (Figure 4B).

4.2.2. Mayuan Group (Pj-2 and Pf-2)

From the Mayuan Group schist sample Pj-2, 90 zircons were analyzed. These zircon grains were dominantly prismatic, and euhedral to subhedral in shape (Figure 3C). A number of them displayed a core-rim structure, with cores generally gray to dark brown, transparent with clear oscillatory zonation, indicative of igneous zircons [90,92]. Among these zircons, eight grains exhibited dateable mantles, with a mean concordant U-Pb age of 247.4 ± 5.7 Ma. Considering their vague and irregular textures, as well as the very low Th/U ratios (<0.05), these young overgrowth rims may have formed in a metamorphic or hydrothermal event [91]. The rest of the analyses yielded much older Mesoarchean to Paleoproterozoic U-Pb ages (Table S1), with four age peaks at ~2393 Ma, ~2085 Ma, ~1833 Ma, and ~1514 Ma (Figure 4C).
Sample Pf-2 was also taken from the Mayuan Group, from which a total of 112 analyses were conducted on 82 zircon grains (Table S1). Similar to those of sample Pj-2, the dated zircons had euhedral to subhedral prismatic shapes, with lengths ranging from ~120 μm to ~280 μm and length/width ratios of around 2:1 to 2.5:1 (Figure 3D). In addition, most of them exhibited core-rim textures. Therein, the cores were generally bright with clear oscillatory zonation, while the rims were relatively darker in color and showed low Th/U ratios (all <0.12, majority <0.05; Table S1), corresponding to original igneous zircons overgrown by metamorphic rims [91]. The 15 dated metamorphic overgrowths yielded apparent concordant ages with a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of 245.0 ± 2.2 Ma, which was highly comparable to that of sample Pj-2 (Figure 4C,D). The Precambrian zircons in this rock displayed three age peaks at ~2437 Ma, ~1825 Ma, and ~1489 Ma, and the oldest zircon grain yielded an age of ~3400 Ma (Figure 4D).

4.2.3. Daling Formation (JNdn-5)

For sample JNdn-5 from the Daling Formation, 87 zircon crystals were analyzed, totaling 112 analyses, and 101 concordant ages were obtained (Table S1). The dated zircons were euhedral to subhedral, with lengths of ~80 μm to ~218 μm and length/width ratios of ~2.5:1 to ~1.5:1. Like the samples from the Chencai and Mayuan Groups, a large number of zircon grains from JNdn-5 exhibited complex core-mantle textures (Figure 3E), suggesting that these Precambrian zircons were recycled, perhaps multiple times. Furthermore, wide and dark early Mesozoic (243.7 ± 2.4 Ma) metamorphic rims occurred on the Proterozoic cores (Figure 3E; Table S1). These rims were also recognized in the zircons from the two Mayuan Group schist samples (Figure 3C–E). The analyzed Precambrian zircons from JNdn-5 largely yielded Paleoproterozoic 207Pb/206Pb ages and defined two major age peaks at ~2445 Ma and ~1851 Ma (Figure 3E), again comparable with those in the Mayuan Group sample Pf-2 (Figure 4D,E).

5. Discussion

5.1. Constraints on Depositional Ages of Proterozoic Sequences (Northeastern Cathaysia)

Previous stratigraphic and geochronological studies focused on the formation and metamorphic ages of the Proterozoic meta-sequences in the northeastern Cathaysia block. In previous field mapping, the Chencai Group was considered to represent Mesoproterozoic strata, based on stratigraphic relationships [21,93,94]. However, zircon LA-ICP-MS U-Pb ages obtained from the migmatized hornblende gneiss belonging to the Shuangqiaoshan Formation (northeastern Chencai town) revealed that a large amount of the protoliths of the Chencai Group are of early Neoproterozoic age (~900 Ma to 800 Ma) [76]. More recently, Lu et al. [54] suggested that the deposition of the protoliths of the Chencai Group possibly initiated very late in the early Paleozoic (~501 Ma), based on detrital zircon U-Pb age peaks recognized in several paragneisses. As to the timing of peak metamorphic conditions, migmatite, amphibolite, gneiss, and gabbro of the Chencai Group all recorded early Paleozoic tectono-thermal events (~450 Ma to 430 Ma), which resulted in migmatization and resetting of the Proterozoic ages [54,74,76,95,96].
A conventional method for a rough constraint on the maximum depositional age of strata using detrital zircon geochronology was used to acquire the mean age of the youngest age group [97,98]. However, as mentioned above, the young U-Pb ages (<1.0 Ga) obtained from all five samples were probably reworked by post-depositional metamorphic events; thus, they cannot readily be used to discuss the provenances. In this study, the youngest (detrital) U-Pb age groups of the two analyzed Chencai Group meta-sediments were ~1352 Ma (Zw-1) and ~1823 Ma (Zd-3), respectively (Figure 4A,B). All of these zircons commonly showed clear oscillatory zoning with narrow rims or occurred as bright overgrowths around older cores (Figure 3A,B), indicating that they are of magmatic origin and were not strongly affected by post-depositional metamorphism. The ~448 Ma zircons only occurred as metamorphic rims, as discussed, and this timing fits well with the previously mentioned early Paleozoic metamorphic ages, further documenting the occurrence of “Caledonian” metamorphism in the eastern Cathaysia block (see Shu et al. [57] for a recent review). It is noteworthy that for each sample, more than 110 analyses were acquired, which met the statistical requirements for a provenance study [99]. This meant that our results were at a 95% confidence level to have reflected all of the necessary age peaks of the dated rock. Therefore, we prefer to consider that the Chencai Group quartz schist Zw-1 (collected near Chencai town) and the meta-sandstone Zd-3 (collected near Dalin town) were deposited in the Mesoproterozoic and Paleoproterozoic periods, respectively. In this regard, the depositional ages of the Chencai Group protolithic meta-sedimentary rocks were obviously older than the previously constrained ones, through detrital zircon geochronology, but they were generally in agreement with those old field mapping results (Figure 5). Nevertheless, we are not disagreeing with previous studies that indicated that some upper parts of the Chencai Group could have been formed or deposited in the Neoproterozoic or even early Paleozoic; however, we argue that the deposition of the stratigraphic sequences of the complex Chencai Group may be long-lasting and probably initiated in the late Paleoproterozoic [100].
Based on the same criteria, we consider that both the Mayuan Group schist rocks (Pj-2 and Pf-2) were likely deposited in the early Mesoproterozoic. These two samples yielded highly comparable Paleoproterozoic and early Mesoproterozoic age peaks at ~2437–2393 Ma, ~1833–1825 Ma, and ~1514–1489 Ma (Figure 4C,D), suggesting similar protolith compositions. The Early Triassic (~247–245 Ma) metamorphic zircon overgrowth rims frequently occurred in both two samples, indicating another intense Phanerozoic post-depositional metamorphism in the northeastern Cathaysia block. This metamorphic event was widespread in South China and was also recorded by single-grain 40Ar/39Ar dating on newly formed mica from mylonitic rocks from several deformational domains in South China (e.g., in the northern and southern Wuyi terrane and within the Yunkai terrane). It is suggested to have been triggered by intra-continental deformation related to the closure of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean [3,57,110,111,112]. In addition, several previous studies reported a series of detrital zircon U-Pb age data from the Mayuan Group in the northern Fujian and eastern Jiangxi Provinces, and the youngest ages determined from igneous-origin zircon cores cluster around ~800 Ma to 500 Ma, indicating mid- to late-Neoproterozoic maximum depositional ages [53,109]. Our results, however, suggest that the deposition of the protoliths of the Mayuan Group may have started as early as the early Mesoproterozoic and lasted until the Neoproterozoic (Figure 5).
As to the Daling Formation schist JNdn-5, the youngest age group of detrital zircons in this sample was determined to be ~1851 Ma, so it represents the maximum depositional age constraining the upper age limit of these strata. Early Triassic (~244 Ma) metamorphic zircon rims were also found in this sample, revealing that this early Mesozoic (Indosinian) regional metamorphism is widespread in the northeastern Cathaysia block. The other major age peak recognized in this rock was at ~2445 Ma, resembling the oldest (Paleoproterozoic) age peaks in the Chencai and Mayuan Group samples (Figure 4). Yang and Jiang. [109] dated two Daling Formation schists (southern Zhenghe city) and found that the majority of the dated zircons showed unimodal Neoproterozoic ages, with a youngest age group of ~673 Ma to 530 Ma. Therefore, they proposed a Cambrian depositional age for the Mamianshan Group and argued that the original lithostratigraphy (divisions) and terminologies of “Group” or “Formation” of Precambrian metamorphic strata in the northern Cathaysia block (e.g., the Wuyi domain) should be abandoned. In this regard, our data seemed to reveal that the Precambrian strata in the eastern Cathaysia also contain significant Mesoproterozoic and Paleoproterozoic components [108] (Figure 5).
Generally speaking, the five dated meta-sediments collected from the northern Cathaysia block exhibited various Mesoproterozoic and Paleoproterozoic age peaks, which consistently reflected Mesoproterozoic deposition and diagenesis of the Precambrian strata exposed in the study areas. Combined with the published geochronological data, as discussed above, we also propose that the detrital compositions of these Precambrian strata are complex and that their deposition and formation were probably diachronous.

5.2. Provenance Analyses

Information on the sediment provenance is crucial in reconstructing the paleogeography. In this study, detrital zircons from the five pre-Paleozoic siliciclastic samples showed variable U-Pb age spectra. For the Neoproterozoic and Paleozoic age signals, as mentioned above, the zircon overgrowth rims that were younger than ~710 Ma were most probably produced by post-depositional metamorphism; alternatively, these ages represent a mixing age between the core and rim structures. Therefore, these zircons and their ages were excluded from the provenance investigation. The remaining numerous Paleo- and Mesoproterozoic ages, taken together, define four principle age populations of ~2489–2393 Ma, ~2243–1994 Ma, ~1851–1823 Ma, and ~1514–1352 Ma (Figure 4), with the majority of the analyzed zircons derived from igneous rocks.
The early Paleoproterozoic detrital zircon age population occurred in all five studied samples, and was also identified by major or minor peaks in the age spectra of previously studied Precambrian and early Paleozoic sequences in the Cathaysia block [66,113,114,115]. However, to date, no coeval magmatic or metamorphic event has been reported from this block (Figure 6A). In addition, a number of mid-Paleoproterozoic (~2243 Ma to 1994 Ma) detrital zircons occurred in the Chencai Group sediments (Figure 4A,B), but no corresponding magmatism for this period has been detected in the Cathaysia block (Figure 6A). Some authors proposed that the early Paleoproterozoic detrital zircons in the South China Craton were likely derived from an “exotic continental block”, such as cratonic units from present-day India, Antarctica, or Australia [109]. Indeed, for these terranes, latest Archean to early Paleoproterozoic (~2650–2400 Ma) magmatism or metamorphism [116,117,118] have been demonstrated. However, the (relative) paleo-positions of these old terranes are highly controversial, and there is still little solid evidence that the Cathaysia block was connected with or adjacent to one (or more) of these terranes in the early Paleoproterozoic. Many of the analyzed early- to mid-Paleoproterozoic zircons were unbroken and angular to sub-rounded (Figure 3), indicative of short-distance transportation, proximal sources, and low degrees of recycling before sedimentation. Therefore, we propose that the ~2489 Ma to 2393 Ma and ~2243 Ma to 1994 Ma grains were possibly derived (eroded and re-deposited) from the neighboring early- to mid-Paleoproterozoic basement rocks of the Cathaysia block. In addition, these basements were largely reworked by later-stage magmatic or metamorphic events, or covered by widespread Phanerozoic deposits in the South China Craton [3,119,120]. In any case, the determination of the provenances of the late Archean to mid-Paleoproterozoic detrital zircons of the Cathaysia block remains unclear, and the significance of these very old zircons calls for further investigation.
The other dominating age population of detrital zircons from our five Precambrian samples was a late Paleoproterozoic group (~1.99 Ga to 1.85 Ga; Figure 4 and Figure 6B). In the northeastern Cathaysia block, corresponding magmatism (~1.93 Ga to 1.75 Ga) was reported by a number of studies from the northern Fujian and central Zhejiang Provinces (Figure 5 and Figure 6A, and the references mentioned therein). Furthermore, Zhang et al. [44] recently reviewed and synthesized geochemical, geochronological, and isotopic data of the late Paleoproterozoic magmatic rocks in the study area (the Wuyishan domain, northern Fujian) and proposed two-phased (~1.93 Ga to 1.85 Ga and ~1.82 Ga to 1.75 Ga) late-Paleoproterozoic magmatic activity in the northeastern Cathaysia block, involving both A- and S- type granitoids. The former were probably produced by partial melting of the mafic lower crust, while the latter were likely derived from partial melting of meta-sedimentary sources in a continental arc/back-arc setting [44,125]. Considering the general sub-angular shapes of the zircons that suggest short distances of transportation (Figure 3), it is reasonable to propose that most of the late-Paleoproterozoic zircons were sourced from the in situ crystalline basement rocks in the Cathaysia block.
Our results also include an early- to mid-Mesoproterozoic age population (~1514 Ma to 1352 Ma), while no corresponding magmatic event occurred in the Cathaysia block (Figure 5 and Figure 6A). It is noted that the late-Mesoproterozoic detrital zircons (~1.3 Ga to 0.9 Ga) are very commonly recognized in the Cambrian-Ordovician sequences in the South China Craton, and their formation was considered to be related with the Grenvillian orogeny that resulted from the assembly of Rodinia [12,114,115,134,135,136]. However, the Grenvillian-related event seems to largely postdate the Mesoproterozoic age peak found in this study. Therefore, the provenance of the early- to mid-Mesoproterozoic detrital zircons in the northeastern Cathaysia block remains unresolved, and future study is needed on this issue as well.

5.3. Late Paleoproterozoic-Early Mesoproterozoic Landscape Configuration of the Eastern South China

The regional topographic dip can be inferred from the analyses of sediments’ transporting directions [82,137,138]. As discussed in Section 5.1, the five dated Proterozoic meta-sediments were deposited during the late Paleoproterozoic to the early Mesoproterozoic. Together with the corrected attitudes of the directional structures preserved in these strata, the contemporary paleotopographic features of the northeastern Cathaysia block in a degree can be inferred and reconstructed.
The studied corrected directions (in respect of modern geographic orientations) derived from the directional structures, which were measured both in the Chencai (central Zhejiang Province) and Mayuan (northern Fujian Province) Groups’ meta-sediments in the northeastern Cathaysia block, showed good consistency and were strongly indicative of paleotopographic characteristics. More specifically, the dip directions of the foreset laminae in cross-beddings obtained from the Chencai Group were ~NWW-N-NNE, indicating ~NWW-N-NNE-oriented paleocurrents (Figure 6A; Table 2). This coincides with the slump directions of the syn-depositional folds recognized in the Mayuan Group schist, which suggested a ~NWW-dipping paleo-slope (Table 2). In addition, although parts of the Chencai and Mayuan Groups strata have experienced post-depositional metamorphism and migmatization that largely altered the original zircon U-Pb systems [76], our results and several recent studies revealed that these two groups were probably continuous (marine) strata in the late Paleoproterozoic to the early Mesoproterozoic [11,43] (Figure 5). Therefore, this means that regional paleotopographic dips were generally consistent during the late Paleoproterozoic to early Mesoproterozoic (~1.8–1.5 Ga).
Combined with the above provenance analyses, it is reasonable to propose that there existed a very old eroded area in the eastern part of the Cathaysia block, at least since the late Paleoproterozoic. This area roughly covers the current eastern Fujian and Zhejiang Provinces (geographically divided by the Zhuji-Yanping line; Figure 1B and Figure 6A), and their eastward extensions that are currently covered by the seas (Figure 6A). This is also in agreement with the geological fact that almost no Precambrian stratum has been found in the easternmost Cathaysia block [13,21,77]. In the late Paleoproterozoic time, this eroded area stood as topographic highs providing massive detritus to the adjacent basins, and here the sedimentary region covered by water is called the “Cathaysia Sea” (Figure 7A). Although we cannot precisely constrain the extension of this sedimentary basin, it at least includes the current northern Fujian and central-southern Zhejiang Provinces, where Paleoproterozoic- to Mesoproterozoic siliciclastic rocks are widely distributed.
The discussion in Section 5.2 points out that the coeval eroded area was in situ in the Cathaysia block, and the sedimentary indices further indicate that it was located in the eastern part of the sampling locus. During the late Paleoproterozoic and early Mesoproterozoic, the eastern Cathaysia block was inclined to ~NWW-N-NNE and the paleotopography was relatively steep on its western side (Figure 7A). The ~1.93–1.75 Ga arc-related magmatic rocks were the main sources for the sedimentary basin, while some subsequent (minor) magmatisms and/or volcanisms may have also taken place in the early Mesoproterozoic, during and after the Nuna (Columbia) assembly [152,153], continuing to provide siliciclasts for the neighboring Cathaysia Sea. This may account for the formation of the thick Proterozoic marine sequences (the Chencai, Mayuan, and Mamianshan Groups, etc.) preserved in the northeastern Cathaysia; the possible long-lasting erosion provided sufficient clastic fragments to the sedimentary basin (i.e., the Cathaysia Sea in the case of the study area) before the onset of ~1.3 Ga to 0.9 Ga Grenville-age orogeny. In this regard, the easternmost Cathaysia block (we call it the “proto-Cathaysia Land”) and the Cathaysia Sea constituted a late Paleoproterozoic to early Mesoproterozoic source-to-sink system in eastern South China (Figure 6A and Figure 7A). In any event, the origin of the early Mesoproterozoic (~1.51 Ga to 1.35 Ga) detrital zircons from the studied samples is still not clear, as mentioned above; more evidence in the future is called for to support our hypothesis that a late Paleoproterozoic to early Mesoproterozoic land existed in the eastern Cathaysia block, which produced massive sedimentary materials for sequences such as the “Mesoproterozoic parts” of the Chencai and Mayuan Groups.

5.4. Tectonic Affinity of the Cathaysia Block in the Nuna (Columbia) Supercontinent

Although it is widely accepted that the Cathaysia represents a constituent of the Precambrian supercontinents of Nuna (Columbia), Rodinia, and Gondwana, its origin and tectonic affinity during each supercontinent cycle are still not entirely clear. Detrital zircon U-Pb age spectra record tectono-magmatic events of source terranes, and can contribute in deciphering the possible tectonic affinities between various blocks/terranes within a supercontinent [154,155]. In addition, the assembly and break-up of these terranes results in sediment provenances changes over time [115,156].
We provided an update of detrital zircon age spectra (Paleo- and Mesoproterozoic) for the eastern Cathaysia block, based on all available data (n = 692). Herein, two major Paleoproterozoic age peaks occurred at ~1.86 Ga and ~2.48 Ga (Figure 7B). The younger peak coincided with the crystallization ages of the known ~1.89 Ga to 1.83 Ga magmatic rocks exposed in the Wuyishan terrane of the eastern Cathaysia [65,69,157]. Overall, both the granitoids’ formation ages and the detrital zircons’ age peak are consistent with the duration of a late Paleoproterozoic orogeny (~1.89 Ga to 1.78 Ga) that accompanied the final assembly of the Nuna supercontinent [153,158,159]. This observation confirms the view that the Cathaysia block was an integral part of Nuna [41]. Yu et al. [69] emphasized that the Cathaysia–South Korea terrane was contiguous to the “outboard” terranes that make up present-day northern India (i.e., the Lesser Himalaya), based on the existence of coeval late Paleoproterozoic orogens and the similarity in the detrital zircon age patterns during the late Archean to the late Paleoproterozoic. Our data also revealed that (eastern) Cathaysia and the northern Indian terranes showed highly comparable Precambrian age distributions, both in the early (~2.52 Ga to 2.48 Ga) and late (~1.88 Ga to 1.86 Ga) Paleoproterozoic (Figure 7B,C), suggesting a close tectonic affinity during the Nuna assembly. In addition, the Precambrian Cathaysian detrital age spectra (Figure 7) also exhibited similarities with those from northwestern Laurentia (e.g., western Canada) and northern Australia, with distinct age peaks at ~2.52 Ga to 2.50 Ga and ~1.87 Ga to 1.85 Ga (Figure 7D,E). This seems to be in agreement with previous models that proposed a close linkage and juxtaposition between these terranes during the Nuna assembly [160]. On the other hand, we found no good match with data from the Precambrian eastern Antarctica terranes. Hence, it does not seem straightforward to place eastern Antarctica in a relatively central position regarding the supercontinent Nuna reconstructions [10].
In any event, clastic sediments sourced from orogenic belts are usually a mixture of a variety of detritus from igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. During transportation, the mixing and elimination of certain detrital zircons could significantly change zircon populations in sedimentary rocks, particularly for those that were multiple-cycled. As a result, such kinds of comparisons of detrital zircon age patterns should be taken with much care when trying to come to certain conclusions [161,162].

6. Conclusions

In this study, we conducted detrital zircon U-Pb dating and provenance analysis, along with the study of sedimentary structures and paleocurrent data on five Proterozoic meta-sedimentary rocks collected from the northeastern Cathaysia block. Our results enabled us to draw the following conclusions:
(1)
The Chencai, Mayuan, and Mamianshan (Daling Formation) Groups showed various maximum depositional ages in the range of ~1.85 Ga to 1.35 Ga. They were much older than the previously dated formation ages of the Proterozoic strata in the northeastern Cathaysia block, indicating that their deposition and formation processes were complex, possibly pointing toward a long-lasting evolution that initiated in the late Paleoproterozoic.
(2)
Present-day easternmost Cathaysia was probably an emerged domain under active erosion and with a ~NWW orientation, providing detrital sediments to the neighboring marine basins during the late Paleoproterozoic to early Mesoproterozoic. This domain was likely composed of a massive Paleoproterozoic crystalline basement that we assigned as “proto-Cathaysia Land”.
(3)
Comparing the Precambrian detrital zircon U-Pb age spectra with those of other major cratons, the eastern Cathaysia block seems to have had close tectonic affinities with coeval terranes that built up northern India, northwestern Laurentia, and northern Australia during the assembly of the supercontinent Nuna.
In any event, the pre-Neoproterozoic geological and geographical evolution of the Cathaysia block still remains largely mysterious, due to the lack of sufficient study materials. More large-scale field mapping actions in some key areas are needed in future investigations, in order to obtain more robust sedimentological evidence from the field.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/min12101199/s1, Table S1. U-Pb dating results of zircons from five Proterozoic meta-sedimentary samples from the northern Cathaysia block.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, R.H. and Z.H.; methodology, R.H.; investigation, R.H.; data curation, R.H. and Z.H.; writing—original draft preparation, Z.H.; writing—review and editing, R.H. and J.D.G.; supervision, J.D.G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was sponsored by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (41230208) and the PhD Start-up Project of Xichang University (YBZ202134). The support provided by the China Scholarship Council (CSC, 201806190214) in financing the research of Z. He in Belgium is appreciated.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available in Supplementary Material.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank four journal reviewers for their insightful comments and suggestions. We would also like to thank Jiarun Liu (Nanjing University) for his assistance in the fieldwork. Zhenyu Yang (Capital Normal University, Beijing) funded the LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb dating for this work and is acknowledged. Yinggang Zhang (Nanjing University) assisted in the preparation of optical photomicrographs.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. (A) South China Craton composed of the Yangtze and Cathaysia blocks; (B) geological sketch maps of eastern South China; (C) detailed geological map of the southern Zhuji area; and (D) the central Wuyi mountains (D). 1: Pingxiang–Jiangshan–Shaoxing Fault. 2: Zhenghe–Dapu Fault. (B,C) are modified from Yao et al. [20] and BGMRZJ [21], respectively. (D) is based on BGMRZJ [22], BGMRFJ [23], and DGMRJX [24].
Figure 1. (A) South China Craton composed of the Yangtze and Cathaysia blocks; (B) geological sketch maps of eastern South China; (C) detailed geological map of the southern Zhuji area; and (D) the central Wuyi mountains (D). 1: Pingxiang–Jiangshan–Shaoxing Fault. 2: Zhenghe–Dapu Fault. (B,C) are modified from Yao et al. [20] and BGMRZJ [21], respectively. (D) is based on BGMRZJ [22], BGMRFJ [23], and DGMRJX [24].
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Figure 2. Representative field photos and photomicrographs of studied and sampled (northeastern Cathaysia block) meta-sediments, with indication of observed and measured sedimentary structures. (A,G,H) field outcrops of samples Zw-1, Pf-2, and JNdn-5, respectively. (B,D) photomicrographs of samples Zw-1 and Zd-3, respectively. (C,E) unidirectional cross-beddings CBC03 and CBC01, with indication of occurrence of the foreset laminae. (F) syndepositional fold SFoC01, occurrence of fold axial plane is marked. The red lines represent bedding planes. The red dashed lines represent the axial plane of the fold. The yellow and brown dashed lines represent foreset laminae and folds, respectively. The red stars and white numbers represent sampling sites and sample codes, respectively. Qz: quartz. Refer to the text for detailed descriptions.
Figure 2. Representative field photos and photomicrographs of studied and sampled (northeastern Cathaysia block) meta-sediments, with indication of observed and measured sedimentary structures. (A,G,H) field outcrops of samples Zw-1, Pf-2, and JNdn-5, respectively. (B,D) photomicrographs of samples Zw-1 and Zd-3, respectively. (C,E) unidirectional cross-beddings CBC03 and CBC01, with indication of occurrence of the foreset laminae. (F) syndepositional fold SFoC01, occurrence of fold axial plane is marked. The red lines represent bedding planes. The red dashed lines represent the axial plane of the fold. The yellow and brown dashed lines represent foreset laminae and folds, respectively. The red stars and white numbers represent sampling sites and sample codes, respectively. Qz: quartz. Refer to the text for detailed descriptions.
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Figure 3. Cathodoluminescence (CL) images of representative zircons from the five analyzed meta-sediments ((A) Zw-1; (B) Zd-3; (C) Pj-2; (D) Pf-2; (E) JNdn-5).
Figure 3. Cathodoluminescence (CL) images of representative zircons from the five analyzed meta-sediments ((A) Zw-1; (B) Zd-3; (C) Pj-2; (D) Pf-2; (E) JNdn-5).
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Figure 4. Concordia diagrams and age distributions for detrital zircon samples from the northeastern Cathaysia block ((A) Zw-1; (B) Zd-3; (C) Pj-2; (D) Pf-2; (E) JNdn-5).
Figure 4. Concordia diagrams and age distributions for detrital zircon samples from the northeastern Cathaysia block ((A) Zw-1; (B) Zd-3; (C) Pj-2; (D) Pf-2; (E) JNdn-5).
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Figure 5. Summarized geochronological frameworks of the Chencai and Mayuan Groups and the Daling Formation in the northeastern Cathaysia block. Ages shown in the figure are crystallization ages for the magmatic rocks and maximum depositional ages for the siliciclastic sediment samples [34,40,43,44,53,54,74,75,76,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109]. * Data are from this study.
Figure 5. Summarized geochronological frameworks of the Chencai and Mayuan Groups and the Daling Formation in the northeastern Cathaysia block. Ages shown in the figure are crystallization ages for the magmatic rocks and maximum depositional ages for the siliciclastic sediment samples [34,40,43,44,53,54,74,75,76,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109]. * Data are from this study.
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Figure 6. (A) Sites of the pre-Neoproterozoic igneous rocks and collected siliciclastic samples in the northeastern Cathaysia block, and paleotopographic dips of the northeastern margin of the Cathaysia block. (B) Age spectra of all the dated detrital zircons in this study. Data sources: (1) Zhang [101], (2) Li et al. [74], (3) Wang et al. [121], (4/22) Zhao et al. [43,122], (5/21) Yu et al. [65,69], (6) Zhang et al. [44], (7) Xia [123], (8) Li [124], (9) Xia and Xu [125], (10) Liu et al. [42], (11) Liu et al. [126], (12) Yu et al. [127], (13) Chen et al. [128], (14) Chen et al. [129], (15) Li et al. [40], (16) Chen and Xing [130], (17) Lin et al. [108], (18) Yang [131], (19/20) FJGSRI. [132,133], (23) Wan et al. [75], and (24) this study.
Figure 6. (A) Sites of the pre-Neoproterozoic igneous rocks and collected siliciclastic samples in the northeastern Cathaysia block, and paleotopographic dips of the northeastern margin of the Cathaysia block. (B) Age spectra of all the dated detrital zircons in this study. Data sources: (1) Zhang [101], (2) Li et al. [74], (3) Wang et al. [121], (4/22) Zhao et al. [43,122], (5/21) Yu et al. [65,69], (6) Zhang et al. [44], (7) Xia [123], (8) Li [124], (9) Xia and Xu [125], (10) Liu et al. [42], (11) Liu et al. [126], (12) Yu et al. [127], (13) Chen et al. [128], (14) Chen et al. [129], (15) Li et al. [40], (16) Chen and Xing [130], (17) Lin et al. [108], (18) Yang [131], (19/20) FJGSRI. [132,133], (23) Wan et al. [75], and (24) this study.
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Figure 7. (A) Late Paleoproterozoic to early Mesoproterozoic landscape configuration of the northeastern Cathaysia block. (B) Age spectra of detrital zircons from the northeastern Cathaysia block, and (C–F) other (Nuna/Columbia-related) blocks. Data for (B): Wan et al. [75], Yu et al. [69], Zhao et al. [43], and this study. Data for (C): Martin et al. [139], McQuarrie et al. [140], and McKenzie et al. [141]. Data for (D): the Western Australia age data are from Armandola et al. [142,143]; the Northern Australia age data are from Tyler et al. [144], Hollis et al. [145], Ramsay et al. [146], and Iaccheri et al. [147]. Data for (E): Furlanetto et al. [148]. Data for (F): Condie et al. [149], Liu et al. [150], and Van Leeuwen et al. [151].
Figure 7. (A) Late Paleoproterozoic to early Mesoproterozoic landscape configuration of the northeastern Cathaysia block. (B) Age spectra of detrital zircons from the northeastern Cathaysia block, and (C–F) other (Nuna/Columbia-related) blocks. Data for (B): Wan et al. [75], Yu et al. [69], Zhao et al. [43], and this study. Data for (C): Martin et al. [139], McQuarrie et al. [140], and McKenzie et al. [141]. Data for (D): the Western Australia age data are from Armandola et al. [142,143]; the Northern Australia age data are from Tyler et al. [144], Hollis et al. [145], Ramsay et al. [146], and Iaccheri et al. [147]. Data for (E): Furlanetto et al. [148]. Data for (F): Condie et al. [149], Liu et al. [150], and Van Leeuwen et al. [151].
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Table
Table 1. Sample details from the Precambrian strata in the northeastern Cathaysia block.
Table 1. Sample details from the Precambrian strata in the northeastern Cathaysia block.
SampleSedimentary StructureLocationGPS PositionLithologyStratigraphy
Zw-1—Wufeng, Zhuji29°35′26.5″ N, E 120°23′07.0″Quartz schistChencai Group
Zd-3CBC03Dalin, Zhuji29°39′27.0″ N, E 120°25′59.6″MetasandstoneChencai Group
—CBC02Dalin, Zhuji29°39′27.1″ N, E 120°25′59.7″MetasandstoneChencai Group
—CBC01Dalin, Zhuji29°39′26.7″ N, E 120°25′57.7″MetasandstoneChencai Group
Pj-2SFoC01Jiumu, Pucheng28°08′38.5″ N, E 118°28′11.2″Quartz schistMayuan Group
Pf-2—Fuling, Pucheng27°52′23.6″ N, E 118°46′27.0″SchistMayuan Group
JNdn-5—Nanshan, Yanping26°37′23.4″ N, E 118°21′37.0″SchistDaling Formation
CBC01, 02, and 03: unidirectional cross-beddings. SFoC01: syndepositional fold.
Table
Table 2. Data on sedimentary structures and paleocurrent indicators from the Precambrian strata in the northeastern margin of the Cathaysia block. See text for discussion.
Table 2. Data on sedimentary structures and paleocurrent indicators from the Precambrian strata in the northeastern margin of the Cathaysia block. See text for discussion.
CodeAttitudes Measured in the FieldCalculated ValueCorrected ValueSedimentary Transport/Slump Direction
StratumDirectional Structure
CBC03317° < 87°137° < 82° a—317° < 11° aNW
318° < 86°142° < 76° a—330° < 18° aNW
CBC02140° < 76°142° < 73° a—288° < 4° aNWW
CBC01318° < 68°323° < 79° a—342° < 12° aNNW
313° < 84°318° < 80° a—3° < 6° aNNE
SFoC01140° < 57°294° < 52° b—119° < 75° bNWW
140° < 57°(207° < 33°, 137° < 77°) c284° < 57° b109° < 74° bNWW
a: foreset laminae. b: axial plane. c: fold limbs.
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Huang, R.; He, Z.; De Grave, J. Did a Late Paleoproterozoic-Early Mesoproterozoic Landmass Exist in the Eastern Cathaysia Block? New Evidence from Detrital Zircon U-Pb Geochronology and Sedimentary Indicators. Minerals 2022, 12, 1199. https://doi.org/10.3390/min12101199

AMA Style

Huang R, He Z, De Grave J. Did a Late Paleoproterozoic-Early Mesoproterozoic Landmass Exist in the Eastern Cathaysia Block? New Evidence from Detrital Zircon U-Pb Geochronology and Sedimentary Indicators. Minerals. 2022; 12(10):1199. https://doi.org/10.3390/min12101199

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Huang, Renbo, Zhiyuan He, and Johan De Grave. 2022. "Did a Late Paleoproterozoic-Early Mesoproterozoic Landmass Exist in the Eastern Cathaysia Block? New Evidence from Detrital Zircon U-Pb Geochronology and Sedimentary Indicators" Minerals 12, no. 10: 1199. https://doi.org/10.3390/min12101199

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