Accessing Local Tacit Knowledge as a Means of Knowledge Co-Production for Effective Wildlife Corridor Planning in the Chignecto Isthmus, Canada
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. The Chignecto Isthmus in Context
1.2. Conservation Planning and Local Knowledge
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participatory Mapping Interviews
2.2. Participatory Mapping Workshops
3. Results
3.1. Predominant Species and Threats
3.2. Patterns in Spatial Elicitation through Participatory Mapping
3.2.1. Wildlife Movement Pathways
3.2.2. Threats to Wildlife Habitat and Movement
We can go for a drive today and drive up in this area and see moose tracks, but does it represent or have any remnants of what it was like 35 or 40 years ago? Not even close, and it never will. That piece of ground will never be the same. Those things in itself, to me, are changes that are irreversible and are going to represent some sort of adversity to wildlife” [referring to swaths of land currently being used for industrial forestry] (P10).
3.3. Comparison with Modeled Wildlife Movement Pathways and Roadkill Hotspots
3.4. Emergent Themes
3.4.1. Species of Conservation Concern
3.4.2. Species and Ecological Interrelationships
[I]f you get anybody out and then try to have a connection—let them have a connection and see that—what connects to what, like that salamander connects to that—it doesn’t matter how big a snake, … anything. It all starts down here. You know, moss and the grass and then, you know, like, you gotta look at the whole picture (P27).
I mean, it’s a massive undertaking. It’s so complex and distanced from the realities in nature. The arguments, like, should we stop spraying the forests to protect the deer, when in both instances they’re both invasive issues? … We’re no longer making choices of environmental stability; we’re making choices of preferences over things that will make it (P29).
3.4.3. Sea-Level Rise
And it’s also the highest point of land on this size of the Isthmus. This is 350-foot elevation. And that’s kind of important for looking at climate change and, you know, sea-level increases. Because, essentially, that elevation works like this: the elevations go from here, up through the top of this area here, which is the ridge—Jolicure. So, this is the highway and this is all, of course, relatively low compared to sea level, here. So, that kind of constitutes an important movement area, especially with the climate-change stuff happening (P27).
There’s definitely a seasonal component, actually, to the animal movement through here, in my opinion. I hear—people would tell me stories when I was doing the wind farm bird surveys, they were telling me that—this is a long time ago, probably in the 1960s—they had this moose going out to the, to the water and swimming over here to this peninsula. And they, they saw it …. But I don’t think it’s happening today (P12).
Into the Bay of Fundy. This is a tremendous change here, over the last 4 or 5 years.… I go down there every year … [W]e used to walk the shore. Can’t walk the shore anymore. There’s a tremendous influx of silt, here, and the only open water now is over by the fields on this side…. On this side, this is all silted in. There’s a tremendous amount of silt here, and that’s 4, 5 years.... We suspect—my friend and I—that it’s come down the Petitcodiac River after they opened the causeway. Yeah, and there was a lot of silt accumulated there …. [T]here’s a tremendous, tremendous change there. That’s probably going to be good for the shorebirds but it’s just muck. You can’t walk. It [deer] would be a fool to walk on it. But, uh, it’s changed tremendously. (P1)
Yeah, without it, NS would become an island …. [T]here are big parts of the Isthmus that are protected by dykes; and, uh, if the dykes fail or the dykes are breached, NS will very quickly run out of what they consume and buy in the store. The railway, the rail line, is right across the Isthmus and all the roads go across the Isthmus …. So, the only connection NS would have to the rest of us in the case of breached dykes would be by air! But also, there’s some very interesting wetlands up through the Isthmus. The Chignecto, … the Missaguash River and all the complex of lakes and so on. The Isthmus is—it’s an interesting canoe ride, to go from … Point de Bute … to Hall’s Hill. (P5)
4. Discussion
[W]e have really been recognizing just how important this area is because of animal movement, thinking how much small little sections of land are responsible for having to move so much land-based animals, and when you think of the type of traffic that’s happening here …, the amount of change that we’ve seen in terms of development and car usage, it’s insane (P29).
4.1. Limitations
4.2. Future Research
The woods have been cut down; the moose and the caribou, the beaver and the bear, and all other animals, have in most places nearly disappeared …. So that it is now utterly impossible for us to Obtain a livelihood in the way our creator trained us
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Heller, N.E.; Zavaleta, E.S. Biodiversity management in the face of climate change: A review of 22 years of recommendations. Biol. Conserv. 2009, 142, 14–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Worboys, G.L.; Ament, R.; Day, J.C.; Lausche, B.; Locke, H.; McClure, M.; Peterson, C.H.; Pittock, J.; Tabor, G.; Woodley, S. (Eds.) Advanced Draft, Connectivity Conservation Area Guidelines; International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), World Commission on Protected Areas: Gland, Switzerland, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Woodley, S.; Bhola, N.; Maney, C.; Locke, H. Area-based conservation beyond 2020: A global survey of conservation scientists. Parks 2019, 25, 19–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Woodley, S.; Locke, H.; Laffoley, D.; MacKinnon, K.; Sandwith, T.; Smart, J. A review of evidence for area-based conservation targets for the post-2020 global biodiversity framework. Parks 2019, 25, 31–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hilty, J.; Worboys, G.; Keeley, A.; Woodley, S.; Lausche, B.; Locke, H.; Carr, M.; Pulsford, I.; Pittock, J.; White, J.W.; et al. Guidelines for Conserving Connectivity through Ecological Networks and Corridors, Best Practice Protected Areas Guideline Series, No. 30; IUCN: Gland, Switzerland, 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Watkinson, A.R.; Sutherland, W.J. Sources, Sinks and Pseudo-Sinks. J. Anim. Ecol. 1995, 64, 126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dias, P.C. Sources and sinks in population biology. Trends Ecol. Evol. 1996, 11, 326–330. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Beazley, K.; Ball, M.; Isaacman, L.; McBurney, S.; Wilson, P.; Nette, T. Complexity and Information Gaps in Recovery Planning for Moose (Alces Americana) in Nova Scotia, Canada. ALCES 2006, 42, 89–109. Available online: http://flash.lakeheadu.ca/~arodgers/Alces/Vol42/Alces42_89.pdf (accessed on 14 August 2020).
- Caprio, M.A. Source-sink dynamics between transgenic and non-transgenic habitats and their role in the evolution of resistance. J. Econ. Èntomol. 2001, 94, 698–705. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Beier, P. Determining Minimum Habitat Areas and Habitat Corridors for Cougars. Conserv. Biol. 1993, 7, 94–108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Brussard, P.F. Minimum viable populations: How many are too few? Ecol. Restor. 1985, 3, 21–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reed, J.M.; Doerr, P.D.; Walters, J.R. Determining minimum population sizes for birds and mammals. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 1986, 14, 255–261. [Google Scholar]
- Soulé, M.E. Thresholds for survival: Maintaining fitness and evolutionary potential. In Conservation Biology: An Evolutionary-Ecological Perspective; Soulé, M.E., Wilconx, M.E., Eds.; Sinauer Associates: Sunderland, MA, USA, 1980; pp. 151–169. [Google Scholar]
- Fahrig, L.; Merriam, G. Conservation of Fragmented Populations. Conserv. Biol. 1994, 8, 50–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Beissinger, S.R.; Westphal, M.I. On the Use of Demographic Models of Population Viability in Endangered Species Management. J. Wildl. Manag. 1998, 62, 821. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Haig, S.M. Molecular contributions to conservation. Ecology 1998, 79, 413–425. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- O’Brien, S.J. A role for molecular genetics in biological conservation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1994, 91, 5748–5755. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Wayne, R.K.; Lehman, N.; Allard, M.W.; Honeycutt, R.L. Mitochondrial DNA Variability of the Gray Wolf: Genetic Consequences of Population Decline and Habitat Fragmentation. Conserv. Biol. 1992, 6, 559–569. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Krosby, M.; Tewksbury, J.J.; Haddad, N.M.; Hoekstra, J. Ecological Connectivity for a Changing Climate. Conserv. Biol. 2010, 24, 1686–1689. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, I.-C.; Hill, J.K.; Ohlemüller, R.; Roy, D.; Thomas, C.D. Rapid Range Shifts of Species Associated with High Levels of Climate Warming. Science 2011, 333, 1024–1026. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lawler, J.; Ruesch, A.S.; Olden, J.D.; McRae, B.H. Projected climate-driven faunal movement routes. Ecol. Lett. 2013, 16, 1014–1022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McGuire, J.L.; Lawler, J.J.; McRae, B.H.; Nuñez, T.A.; Theobald, D.M. Achieving climate connectivity in a fragmented landscape. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2016, 113, 7195–7200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hodgson, J.A.; Thomas, C.D.; Cinderby, S.; Cambridge, H.; Evans, P.; Hill, J.K. Habitat re-creation strategies for promoting adaptation of species to climate change. Conserv. Lett. 2011, 4, 289–297. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Margules, C.R.; Pressey, R.L. Systematic conservation planning. Nature 2000, 405, 243–253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Groves, C.R.; Jensen, D.B.; Valutis, L.L.; Redford, K.H.; Shaffer, M.L.; Scott, J.M.; Baumgartner, J.V.; Higgins, J.V.; Beck, M.W.; Anderson, M.G. Planning for Biodiversity Conservation: Putting Conservation Science into Practice. BioScience 2002, 52, 499. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Pressey, R.L.; Visconti, P.; Ferraro, P.J. Making parks make a difference: Poor alignment of policy, planning and management with protected-area impact, and ways forward. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 2015, 370, 20140280. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Reed, J.; Deakin, L.; Sunderland, T.C. What are ‘Integrated Landscape Approaches’ and how effectively have they been implemented in the tropics: A systematic map protocol. Environ. Évid. 2015, 4, 2. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Virapongse, A.; Brooks, S.; Metcalf, E.C.; Zedalis, M.; Gosz, J.; Kliskey, A.; Alessa, L. A social-ecological systems approach for environmental management. J. Environ. Manag. 2016, 178, 83–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Cvitanovic, C.; Hobday, A.; Van Kerkhoff, L.; Wilson, S.K.; Dobbs, K.; Marshall, N. Improving knowledge exchange among scientists and decision-makers to facilitate the adaptive governance of marine resources: A review of knowledge and research needs. Ocean. Coast. Manag. 2015, 112, 25–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Cvitanovic, C.; Mc Donald, J.; Hobday, A.J. From science to action: Principles for undertaking environmental research that enables knowledge exchange and evidence-based decision-making. J. Environ. Manag. 2016, 183, 864–874. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Nguyen, V.M.; Cooke, S.J.; Young, N. A roadmap for knowledge exchange and mobilization research in conservation and natural resource management. Conserv. Biol. 2017, 31, 789–798. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Segan, D.B.; Bottrill, M.C.; Baxter, P.W.; Possingham, H.P. Using Conservation Evidence to Guide Management. Conserv. Biol. 2010, 25, 200–202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sutherland, W.J.; Bellingan, L.; Bellingham, J.R.; Blackstock, J.J.; Bloomfield, R.M.; Bravo, M.; Cadman, V.M.; Cleevely, D.D.; Clements, A.; Cohen, A.S.; et al. A Collaboratively-Derived Science-Policy Research Agenda. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e31824. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bennett, N.J.; Roth, R. Introducing the conservation social sciences. In the Conservation Social Sciences: What?, How? and Why? Routledge: New York, NY, USA; Available online: http://www.hwctf.org/resources/specialist-group/BennettNJandRRoth2015TheConservationSocialSciencesWhatHowAndWhy.pdf (accessed on 20 June 2020).
- Cvitanovic, C.; Cunningham, R.; Dowd, A.-M.; Howden, S.; Van Putten, E. Using Social Network Analysis to Monitor and Assess the Effectiveness of Knowledge Brokers at Connecting Scientists and Decision-Makers: An Australian case study. Environ. Policy Gov. 2017, 27, 256–269. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fazey, I.; Evely, A.C.; Reed, M.S.; Stringer, L.C.; Kruijsen, J.; White, P.C.L.; Newsham, A.; Jin, L.; Cortazzi, M.; Phillipson, J.; et al. Knowledge exchange: A review and research agenda for environmental management. Environ. Conserv. 2012, 40, 19–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Desplanque, C.; Mossman, D.J. Tides and their seminal impact on the geology, geography, history, and socio-economics of the Bay of Fundy, eastern Canada. Atl. Geol. 2004, 40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Forbes, D.L.; Parkes, G.; Ketch, L. Sea-level rise and regional subsidence in southeastern New Brunswick. In Impacts of Sea-Level Rise and Climate Change on the Coastal Zone of Southeastern New Brunswick; Daigle, R., Forbes, D., Parkes, G., Ritchie, H., Webster, T., Bérubé, D., Hanson, A., DeBaie, L., Nichols, S., Vasseur, L., Eds.; Environment Canada: Ottawa, Canada, 2006; pp. 24–610. [Google Scholar]
- Rahmstorf, S. A Semi-Empirical Approach to Projecting Future Sea-Level Rise. Science 2007, 315, 368–370. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Greenberg, D. Climate Change, Mean Sea Level and Tides in the Bay of Fundy. In Increased Flood Risk in the Bay of Fundy in Scenarios for Climate Change; CCAF Project S00-15-01; Bedford Institute of Oceanography: Dartmouth, NS, Canada, 2001; pp. 1–16. [Google Scholar]
- CBCL Limited. The 2009 State of Nova Scotia’s Coast: Technical Report; Dalhousie University: Halifax, NS, Canada, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Webster, T.; McGuigan, K.; Crowell, N.; Collins, K. River Flood Risk Study of the Nappan River Incorporating Climate Change; Atlantic Climate Adaptation Solutions Association: Charlottetown, PE, Canada, 2012; Available online: https://atlanticadaptation.ca/en/islandora/object/acasa%3A688 (accessed on 19 August 2020).
- Beazley, K.; Smandych, L.; Snaith, T.; MacKinnon, F.; Austen-Smith, P.; Duinker, P. Biodiversity Considerations in Conservation System Planning: Map-Based Approach for Nova Scotia, Canada. Ecol. Appl. 2005, 15, 2192–2208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reining, C.; Beazley, K.; Doran, P.; Bettigole, C. From the Adirondacks to Acadia: A Wildlands Network Design for the Greater Northern Appalachians. 2006. Available online: http://conservationcorridor.org/cpb/Reining_et_al_2006.pdf (accessed on 7 June 2020).
- Trombulak, S.C.; Anderson, M.G.; Baldwin, R.F.; Beazley, K.; Ray, J.; Reining, C.; Woolmer, G.; Bettigole, C.; Forbes, G.; Gratton, L. Priority Locations for Conservation Action in the Northern Appalachian/Acadian Ecoregion. Two Countries, One Forest, Special Report 1. 2008. Available online: http://conservationcorridor.org/cpb/Trombulak_et_al_2008.pdf (accessed on 7 June 2020).
- Macdonald, A.; Clowater, R. Natural Ecosystem Connectivity across the Chignecto Isthmus—Opportunities and Challenges. 2005. Available online: https://www.cpawsnb.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/ChignectoFinalVersionJune06v2.pdf (accessed on 1 May 2020).
- Nussey, P. A Wildlife Connectivity Analysis for the Chignecto Isthmus Region: Final Report to the Habitat Conservation Fund. 2016. Available online: https://novascotia.ca/natr/wildlife/habfund/final15/NSHCF15_02_NCC_Wildlife-connectivity-on-the-Chignecto-Isthmus.pdf (accessed on 1 May 2020).
- Nussey, P.; Noseworthy, J. A Wildlife Connectivity Analysis for the Chignecto Isthmus. Nature Conservancy Canada (NCC), 2018. Available online: https://connectiviteecologique.com/sites/default/files/project_files/NCC_Chignecto_Isthmus_Connectivity_2018.pdf (accessed on 1 May 2020).
- Barnes, A. Implementing Multiple Sources of Evidence to Describe Wildlife-Road Interactions in the Chignecto Isthmus Region of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, Canada (Dalhousie University). 2019. Available online: https://dalspace.library.dal.ca/handle/10222/76829 (accessed on 3 July 2020).
- Barnes, A.; Beazley, K.; Walker, T. Implementation of Roadkill Survey Data across a Large Regional-Scale Landscape to Ground-Truth Modelled Wildlife Movement Corridors at Locations where they Intersect Roads. In Proceedings of the International Association of Landscape Ecology, North American Conference, Toronto, ON, Canada, 10–14 May 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bennett, N.J.; Roth, R.; Klain, S.C.; Chan, K.M.A.; Clark, D.A.; Cullman, G.; Epstein, G.; Nelson, M.P.; Stedman, R.; Teel, T.L.; et al. Mainstreaming the social sciences in conservation. Conserv. Biol. 2016, 31, 56–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Brown, G.; Raymond, C.M. Methods for identifying land use conflict potential using participatory mapping. Landsc. Urban. Plan. 2014, 122, 196–208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Charnley, S.; Fischer, A.P.; Jones, E.T. Integrating traditional and local ecological knowledge into forest biodiversity conservation in the Pacific Northwest. For. Ecol. Manag. 2007, 246, 14–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Failing, L.; Gregory, R.; Harstone, M. Integrating science and local knowledge in environmental risk management: A decision-focused approach. Ecol. Econ. 2007, 64, 47–60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gruby, R.L.; Gray, N.J.; Campbell, L.M.; Acton, L. Toward a Social Science Research Agenda for Large Marine Protected Areas. Conserv. Lett. 2015, 9, 153–163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Raymond, C.M.; Fazey, I.; Reed, M.S.; Stringer, L.C.; Robinson, G.M.; Evely, A.C. Integrating local and scientific knowledge for environmental management. J. Environ. Manag. 2010, 91, 1766–1777. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hilty, J.; Chester, C.; Cross, M. Climate and Conservation: Landscape and Seascape Science, Planning, and Action; Island Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Lemmen, D.; Warren, F.; James, T.; Clarke, C. Canada’s Marine Coasts in a Changing Climate. 2016. Available online: https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/earthsciences/files/pdf/NRCAN_fullBook%20%20accessible.pdf (accessed on 1 May 2020).
- ECCC. Community-Nominated Priority Places Projects. 2019. Available online: https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/news/2019/09/community-nominated-priority-places-projects.html (accessed on 23 July 2020).
- NCC. The Moose Sex Project. 2012. Available online: https://www.natureconservancy.ca/en/where-we-work/new-brunswick/featured-projects/other-projects/help-moose-cross-the-chignecto.html (accessed on 24 July 2020).
- Holland, A. Moose Sex Project Spreading like Wildfire! Land Lines. The Nature Conservancy of Canada Blog. 2014. Available online: https://www.natureconservancy.ca/en/blog/archive/moose-sex-project-spreading.html (accessed on 24 July 2020).
- MacKinnon, C.M.; Kennedy, A. Canada Lynx, Lynx canadensis, Use of the Chignecto Isthmus and the Possibility of Gene Flow between Populations in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. Can. Field-Nat. 2008, 122, 166–168. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Government of Canada, Canadian Protected and Conserved Areas Database. 2019. Available online: https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/national-wildlife-areas/protected-conserved-areas-database.html (accessed on 20 February 2020).
- Shaw, J.; Taylor, R.B.; Forbes, D.L.; Ruz, M.H.; Solomon, S. Sensitivity of the coasts of Canada to sea-level rise. Sensit. Coasts Can. Sea-Level Rise 1998, 505, 1–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Woolmer, G.; Trombulak, S.C.; Ray, J.C.; Doran, P.J.; Anderson, M.G.; Baldwin, R.F.; Morgan, A.; Sanderson, E.W. Rescaling the Human Footprint: A tool for conservation planning at an ecoregional scale. Landsc. Urban. Plan. 2008, 87, 42–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abraham, J.; Parkes, G.; Bowyer, P. The transition of the “Saxby Gale” into an extratropical storm. In Proceedings of the 23rd Conference on Hurricanes and Tropical Meteorology, American Meteorological Society, Dallas, TX, USA, 10–15 January 1999; pp. 795–798. [Google Scholar]
- Parkes, G.; Ketch, L.; O’Reilly, C. Storm surge events in the Maritimes. In Proceedings of the Canadian Coastal Conference, Guelph, ON, Canada, 21–24 May 1997; Skafel, M.G., Ed.; pp. 115–129. [Google Scholar]
- Peltier, W. Global Glacial Isostasy and the Surface of the Ice-Age Earth: The ICE-5G (VM2) Model and Grace. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2004, 32, 111–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shaw, J.; Amos, C.L.; Greenberg, D.A.; O’Reilly, C.T.; Parrott, D.R.; Patton, E. Catastrophic tidal expansion in the Bay of Fundy, Canada. Earth Sciences Sector (ESS) Contribution 20090423. Can. J. Earth Sci. 2010, 47, 1079–1091. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Canadian Hydrographic Service. Canadian Station Inventory and Data Download, Tides and Water Levels, Atlantic; Fisheries and Oceans Canada: Ottawa, ON, Canada, 2006; Volume 1, Available online: http://isdm-gdsi.gc.ca/isdm-gdsi/twl-mne/inventory-inventaire/index-eng.htm (accessed on 20 June 2020).
- Greenberg, D.; Blanchard, W.; Smith, B.; Barrow, E. Climate Change, Mean Sea Level and High Tides in the Bay of Fundy. Atmos. Ocean 2012, 50, 261–276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Butzer, K.W. French Wetland Agriculture in Atlantic Canada and Its European Roots: Different Avenues to Historical Diffusion. Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr. 2002, 92, 451–470. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Webster, T.; Kongwongthai, M.; Crowell, N. An Evaluation of Flood Risk to Infrastructure Across the Chignecto Isthmus. Atlantic Climate Adaptation Solutions Association, 2012. Available online: https://atlanticadaptation.ca/en/islandora/object/acasa%3A450 (accessed on 19 June 2020).
- Smith, C. Mayors Pleased with Flood Study of Chignecto Isthmus, Land Connecting N.S. to N.B. Global News. Available online: https://globalnews.ca/news/6491487/mayors-flood-study-chignecto-isthmus/ (accessed on 31 January 2020).
- Fournier, P. Sackville Mayor Applauds Flooding Study for Chignecto Isthmus. 2020. Available online: https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/sackville-mayor-chignecto-isthmus-1.5445651 (accessed on 20 June 2020).
- Tutton, M. Bids Sought for Study on How to Protect Chignecto Isthmus from Rising Seas, Storms. The Globe and Mail. Available online: https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-bids-sought-for-study-on-how-to-protect-chignecto-isthmus-from-rising/ (accessed on 24 July 2019).
- Parnham, H.; Arnold, S.; Fenech, A. Using Cost–Benefit Analysis to Evaluate Climate Change Adaptation Options in Atlantic Canada. 2016. Available online: https://atlanticadaptation.ca/en/islandora/object/acasa:779 (accessed on 23 July 2020).
- Mascia, M.B.; Brosius, J.P.; Dobson, T.A.; Forbes, B.C.; Horowitz, L.S.; Mckean, M.A.; Turner, N.J. Conservation and the Social Sciences. Conserv. Biol. 2003, 17, 649–650. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bennett, N.J.; Roth, R.; Klain, S.C.; Chan, K.M.A.; Christie, P.; Clark, D.A.; Cullman, G.; Curran, D.; Durbin, T.J.; Epstein, G.; et al. Conservation social science: Understanding and integrating human dimensions to improve conservation. Biol. Conserv. 2017, 205, 93–108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Brymer, A.L.B.; Holbrook, J.D.; Niemeyer, R.J.; Suazo, A.A.; Wulfhorst, J.D.; Vierling, K.T.; Newingham, B.A.; Link, T.E.; Rachlow, J.L. A social-ecological impact assessment for public lands management: Application of a conceptual and methodological framework. Ecol. Soc. 2016, 21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Karimi, A.; Brown, G.; Hockings, M. Methods and participatory approaches for identifying social-ecological hotspots. Appl. Geogr. 2015, 63, 9–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ostrom, E. A General Framework for Analyzing Sustainability of Social-Ecological Systems. Science 2009, 325, 419–422. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Fry, G.L. Multifunctional landscapes—Towards transdisciplinary research. Landsc. Urban. Plan. 2001, 57, 159–168. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reyers, B.; Roux, D.J.; Cowling, R.M.; Ginsburg, A.E.; Nel, J.L.; O’Farrell, P. Conservation planning as a transdisciplinary process. Conserv. Biol. 2010. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Harris, J.A.; Brown, V.A.; Russell, J.Y. (Eds.) Tackling Wicked Problems: Through the Transdisciplinary Imagination; Routledge: London, UK, 2010. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fox, H.; Christian, C.; Nordby, J.C.; Pergams, O.R.W.; Peterson, G.D.; Pyke, C.R. Perceived Barriers to Integrating Social Science and Conservation. Conserv. Biol. 2006, 20, 1817–1820. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jacobson, S.K.; Duff, M.D. Training Idiot Savants: The Lack of Human Dimensions in Conservation Biology. Conserv. Biol. 1998, 12, 263–267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Anadón, J.D.; Giménez, A.; Ballestar, R.; Pérez, I. Evaluation of Local Ecological Knowledge as a Method for Collecting Extensive Data on Animal Abundance. Conserv. Biol. 2009, 23, 617–625. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Close, C.; Hall, G.B. A GIS-based protocol for the collection and use of local knowledge in fisheries management planning. J. Environ. Manag. 2006, 78, 341–352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Loftus, A.; Anthony, B. Challenges and Opportunities of Integrating Local Knowledge into Environmental Management. In Principles of Environmental Policy: Local, Europeans and Global Perspectives; Pskov State University: Pskov, Russia, 2018; pp. 155–189. [Google Scholar]
- Gray, N.J. The role of boundary organizations in co-management: Examining the politics of knowledge integration in a marine protected area in Belize. Int. J. Commons 2016, 10, 1013. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Matsui, K. University of Tsukuba Problems of Defining and Validating Traditional Knowledge: A Historical Approach. Int. Indig. Policy, J. 2015, 6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Widdowson, F.; Howard, A. Disrobing the Aboriginal Industry: The Deception behind Indigenous Cultural Preservation; McGill-Queen’s University Press: Montreal, QC, Canada, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Wyborn, C. Connecting knowledge with action through coproductive capacities: Adaptive governance and connectivity conservation. Ecol. Soc. 2015, 20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Zurba, M.; Beazley, K.; English, E.; Buchmann-Duck, J. Indigenous Protected and Conserved Areas (IPCAs), Aichi Target 11 and Canada’s Pathway to Target 1: Focusing Conservation on Reconciliation. Land 2019, 8, 10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Artelle, K.A.; Zurba, M.; Bhattacharyya, J.; Chan, D.E.; Brown, K.; Housty, J.; Moola, F.; Bhattacharyya, J. Supporting resurgent Indigenous-led governance: A nascent mechanism for just and effective conservation. Biol. Conserv. 2019, 240, 108284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Forman, R.; Sperling, D.; Bissonette, J.; Clevenger, A.; Cutshall, C.; Dale, V.; Fahrig, L.; Heanue, K.; France, R.; Goldman, C.; et al. Road Ecology: Science and Solutions; Island Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2003. [Google Scholar]
- Forman, R.T.T.; Friedman, D.S.; Fitzhenry, D.; Martin, J.D.; Chen, A.S.; Alexander, L.E. Ecological effects of roads: Toward three summary indices and an overview of North America. In Habitat Fragmentation and Infrastructure; Canter, K., Ed.; Minister of Transport and Public Works and Water Management: Delft, The Netherlands, 1997; pp. 40–54. [Google Scholar]
- Fudge, D.; Freedman, B.; Crowell, M.; Nette, T.; Power, V. Road-kill of Mammals in Nova Scotia. Can. Field-Nat. 2007, 121, 265–273. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Robinson, C.; Duinker, P.; Beazley, K. A conceptual framework for understanding, assessing, and mitigating ecological effects of forest roads. Environ. Rev. 2010, 18, 61–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Spanowicz, A.G.; Jaeger, J.A. Measuring landscape connectivity: On the importance of within-patch connectivity. Landsc. Ecol. 2019, 34, 2261–2278. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thorne, J.H.; Huber, P.R.; Girvetz, E.H.; Quinn, J.; McCoy, M.C. Integration of Regional Mitigation Assessment and Conservation Planning. Ecol. Soc. 2009, 14, 1–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Van Der Ree, R.; Jaeger, J.A.; Van Der Grift, E.A.; Clevenger, A.P. Effects of Roads and Traffic on Wildlife Populations and Landscape Function: Road Ecology is Moving toward Larger Scales. Ecol. Soc. 2011, 16, 48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bager, A.; Rosa, C. Priority ranking of road sites for mitigating wildlife roadkill. Biota Neotropica 2010, 10, 149–153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Gerow, K.; Kline, N.; Swann, D.; Pokorny, M. Estimating annual vertebrate mortality on roads at Saguaro National Park, Arizona. Hum. Wildl. Interact. 2010, 4, 283–292. [Google Scholar]
- Sieber, R. Public Participation Geographic Information Systems: A Literature Review and Framework. Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr. 2006, 96, 491–507. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lovett, A.; Appleton, K. GIS for Environmental Decision-Making; Dummond, J., Gittings, B., Joao, E., Eds.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Brown, G.; Kyttä, M. Key issues and priorities in participatory mapping: Toward integration or increased specialization? Appl. Geogr. 2018, 95, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Orban, F. Participatory Geographic Information Systems and Land Planning. Life Experiences for People Empowerment and Community Transformation. 2011. Available online: www.fundp.ac.be/asbl/pun (accessed on 17 August 2020).
- Brown, G.; Kyttä, M. Key issues and research priorities for public participation GIS (PPGIS): A synthesis based on empirical research. Appl. Geogr. 2014, 46, 122–136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Joa, B.; Winkel, G.; Primmer, E. The unknown known—A review of local ecological knowledge in relation to forest biodiversity conservation. Land Use Policy 2018, 79, 520–530. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brown, G.; Sanders, S.; Reed, P. Using public participatory mapping to inform general land use planning and zoning. Landsc. Urban. Plan. 2018, 177, 64–74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brown, G.; Strickland-Munro, J.; Kobryn, H.; Moore, S.; Brown, G. Mixed methods participatory GIS: An evaluation of the validity of qualitative and quantitative mapping methods. Appl. Geogr. 2017, 79, 153–166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Karimi, A.; Brown, G. Assessing multiple approaches for modelling land-use conflict potential from participatory mapping data. Land Use Policy 2017, 67, 253–267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McCall, M. How important is precision in PGIS mapping? Maps consist of different layers of spatial information—Such as roads, distances between places, boundaries, physical features or land uses. But how do maps represent fuzzy and imprecise spatial information? Particip. Learn. Action 2006, 54, 114–119. [Google Scholar]
- Beins, B.C.; Wenzel, A. Snowball Sampling. SAGE Encycl. Abnorm. Clin. Psychol. 2017, 10, 141–163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sedgwick, P.M. Snowball sampling. BMJ 2013, 347, f7511. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huntington, H.P. Using traditional ecological knowledge in science: Methods and applications. Ecol. Appl. 2000, 10, 1270–1274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- CanVec Series—Topographic Data of Canada. 2017. Available online: https://open.canada.ca/data/en/dataset/80aa8ec6-4947-48de-bc9c-7d09d48b4cad (accessed on 19 August 2020).
- Nova Scotia Geographic Data Directory, Nova Scotia Road Network. 2020. Available online: https://nsgi.novascotia.ca/gdd/ (accessed on 22 August 2020).
- Geography of New Brunswick (Geo NB) New Brunswick Road Network. 2020. Available online: http://www.snb.ca/geonb1/e/DC/catalogue-E.asp (accessed on 22 August 2020).
- Parker, G. Status Report on the Eastern Moose (Alces alces americana Clinton) in Mainland Nova Scotia. 2003. Available online: https://novascotia.ca/natr/wildlife/biodiversity/pdf/statusreports/StatusReportMooseNSComplete.pdf (accessed on 18 August 2020).
- Natural Resource and Energy Development. 2020 Hunt & Trap 2020. Available online: https://www2.gnb.ca/content/dam/gnb/Departments/nr-rn/pdf/en/Wildlife/HuntTrap.pdf (accessed on 17 August 2020).
- Climate Change Nova Scotia. Adapting to a Changing Climate in NS: Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Options. 2005. Available online: https://climatechange.novascotia.ca/sites/default/files/uploads/Adapting_to_a_Changing_Climate_in_NS.pdf (accessed on 19 August 2020).
- Snaith, T.; Beazley, K.; MacKinnon, F.; Duinker, P. Preliminary Habitat Suitability Analysis for Moose in Mainland Nova Scotia, Canada. Alces 2004, 38, 73–88. [Google Scholar]
- Nova Scotia Department of Natural Resources. Recovery Plan for Moose (Alces alces Americana) in Mainland Nova Scotia. 2007. Available online: https://novascotia.ca/natr/wildlife/biodiversity/pdf/recoveryplans/MainlandMooseRecoveryPlan.pdf (accessed on 12 May 2020).
- McGregor, P. From High Overhead, a Sobering Look at a Moose Population in Deep Trouble. 2019. Available online: cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/mainland-moose-nova-scotia-decline-1.5148572 (accessed on 25 May 2019).
- Beazley, K.; Snaith, T.V.; MacKinnon, F.; Colville, D. Road Density and Potential Impacts on Wildlife Species such as American Moose in Mainland Nova Scotia. Proc. Nova Scotian Inst. Sci. (NSIS) 2004, 42, 339–357. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boer, A.H. Spatial distribution of moose kills in New Brunswick. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 1990, 18, 431–434. [Google Scholar]
- Cunningham, C.; Beazley, K.F.; Bush, P.; Brazner, J. Forest Connectivity in Nova Scotia. NS Lands and Forestry: Halifax, NS, Canada. 2020; unpublished, submitted. [Google Scholar]
- Lahey, W. An Independent Review of Forest Practices in Nova Scotia—Executive Summary Conclusions and Recommendations; Dalhousie University: Halifax, NS, Canada, 2018; Available online: https://novascotia.ca/natr/forestry/Forest_Review/Lahey_FP_Review_Report_ExecSummary.pdf (accessed on 19 August 2020).
- Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC). COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Wood Turtle Glyptemys Insculpta in Canada; COSEWIC: Ottawa, ON, Canada, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Environment Climate Change Canada (ECCC). Recovery Strategy for the Wood Turtle (Glyptemys insculpta) in Canada. Species at Risk Act Recovery Strategy Series; Environment Canada: Ottawa, ON, Canada, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Manfredo, M.J. Who Cares about Wildlife? Social Science Concepts for Exploring Human Wildlife Relationships and Conservation Issues; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Messmer, T.A. The emergence of human–wildlife conflict management: Turning challenges into opportunities. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 2000, 45, 97–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Peters-Guarin, G.; McCall, M.K.; Van Westen, C.J. Coping strategies and risk manageability: Using participatory geographical information systems to represent local knowledge. Disasters 2011, 36, 1–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sjöberg, L. Explaining risk perception: An empirical evaluation of cultural theory. Risk Decis. Policy 1997, 2, 113–130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Manfredo, M.J.; Vaske, J.J.; Brown, P.J.; Decker, D.J.; Duke, E.A. Wildlife and Society: The Science of Human Dimensions; Island Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Letterick, K. Jump in Moose Collisions Worries Shediac Fire Department. CBC News, 29 June 2017. Available online: https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/moose-collisions-shediac-1.4182363(accessed on 25 August 2020).
- Snaith, T.V.; Beazley, K.F. Application of population viability theory to moose in mainland Nova Scotia. Alces 2004, 38, 193–204. [Google Scholar]
- Prosper, K.; McMillan, L.J.; Davis, A.A.; Moffitt, M. Returning to Netukulimk: Mi’kmaq cultural and spiritual connections with resource stewardship and self-governance. Int. Indig. Policy J. 2011, 2, 4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kittinger, J.N.; Finkbeiner, E.M.; Ban, N.C.; Broad, K.; Carr, M.H.; Cinner, J.E.; Gelcich, S.; Cornwell, M.L.; Koehn, J.Z.; Basurto, X.; et al. Emerging frontiers in social-ecological systems research for sustainability of small-scale fisheries. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 2013, 5, 352–357. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wyborn, C.; Bixler, R.P. Collaboration and nested environmental governance: Scale dependency, scale framing, and cross-scale interactions in collaborative conservation. J. Environ. Manag. 2013, 123, 58–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cosham, J.A.; Beazley, K.; McCarthy, C. Local Knowledge of Distribution of European Green Crab (Carcinus maenas) in Southern Nova Scotian Coastal Waters. Hum. Ecol. 2016, 44, 409–424. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boschmann, E.E.; Cubbon, E. Sketch Maps and Qualitative GIS: Using Cartographies of Individual Spatial Narratives in Geographic Research. Prof. Geogr. 2013, 66, 236–248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chingombe, W.; Pedzisai, E.; Manatsa, D.; Mukwada, G.; Taru, P. A participatory approach in GIS data collection for flood risk management, Muzarabani district, Zimbabwe. Arab. J. Geosci. 2014, 8, 1029–1040. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dunn, C.E. Participatory GIS—A people’s GIS? Prog. Hum. Geogr. 2007, 31, 616–637. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barnett, A.; Wiber, M.G.; Rooney, M.P.; Maillet, D.G.C. The role of public participation GIS (PPGIS) and fishermen’s perceptions of risk in marine debris mitigation in the Bay of Fundy, Canada. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2016, 133, 85–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brandt, K.; Graham, L.; Hawthorne, T.; Jeanty, J.; Burkholder, B.; Munisteri, C.; Visaggi, C. Integrating sketch mapping and hot spot analysis to enhance capacity for community-level flood and disaster risk management. Geogr. J. 2019, 186, 198–212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Canevari-Luzardo, L.; Bastide, J.; Choutet, I.; Liverman, D. Using partial participatory GIS in vulnerability and disaster risk reduction in Grenada. Clim. Dev. 2015, 9, 95–109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cutts, B.B.; White, D.D.; Kinzig, A.P. Participatory geographic information systems for the co-production of science and policy in an emerging boundary organization. Environ. Sci. Policy 2011, 14, 977–985. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chung, M.-K.; Lu, D.-J.; Tsai, B.-W.; Chou, K.T. Assessing Effectiveness of PPGIS on Protected Areas by Governance Quality: A Case Study of Community-Based Monitoring in Wu-Wei-Kang Wildlife Refuge, Taiwan. Sustainability 2019, 11, 4154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Irvine, R.J.; Fiorini, S.; Yearley, S.; McLeod, J.E.; Turner, A.; Armstrong, H.; White, P.C.L.; Van Der Wal, R.; Irvine, R.J. Can managers inform models? Integrating local knowledge into models of red deer habitat use. J. Appl. Ecol. 2009, 46, 344–352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Berkes, F.; Arce-Ibarra, M.; Armitage, D.; Charles, A.; Loucks, L.; Makino, M.; Satria, A.; Seixas, C.; Abraham, J.; Berdej, S. Analysis of Social-ecological Systems for Community Conservation; Community Conservation Research Network: Halifax, NS, Canada, 2016. Available online: https://www.comunityconservation.net/resources/social-ecolgical-systems-guidebook/ (accessed on 20 June 2020).
- Lemieux, C.J.; Groulx, M.W.; Bocking, S.; Beechey, T.J. Evidence-based decision-making in Canada’s protected areas organizations: Implications for management effectiveness. Facets 2018, 3, 392–414. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Canada Parks Council. No Date. Pathway to Canada Target 1. Available online: https://www.conservation2020canada.ca/home (accessed on 25 July 2020).
- New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers (NEG-ECP). Resolution 40-3—Resolution on Ecological Connectivity, Adaptation to Climate Change, and Biodiversity Conservation. In Proceedings of the 40th Conference of New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers, Boston, MA, USA, 28–29 August 2016; Available online: https://scics.ca/en/product-produit/resolution-40-3-resolution-on-ecological-connectivity-adaptation-to-climate-change-and-biodiversity-conservation/ (accessed on 25 July 2020).
- Austin, Z.; Cinderby, S.; Smart, J.C.R.; Raffaelli, D.; White, P.C.L. Mapping wildlife: Integrating stakeholder knowledge with modelled patterns of deer abundance by using participatory GIS. Wildl. Res. 2009, 36, 553–564. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Silvano, R.A.M.; Begossi, A. What can be learned from fishers? An integrated survey of fishers’ local ecological knowledge and bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix) biology on the Brazilian coast. Hydrobiologia 2009, 637, 3–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Corbett, J.; Rambaldi, G.; Kyem, P.; Weiner, D.; Olson, R.; Muchemi, J.; Chambers, R. Overview: Mapping for 1 Change—The emergence of a new practice. Particip. Learn. Action 2006. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- ESRI. Applying Fuzzy Logic to Overlay Rasters. 2016. Available online: http://desktop.arcgis.com/en/arcmap/10.3/tools/spatial-analyst-toolbox/applying-fuzzy-logic-to-overlay-rasters.htm (accessed on 28 November 2019).
- Paul, F.; Paul, G.; Paul, L. Petition to Queen Victoria, Public Archives of Nova Scotia: Halifax, NS, Canada, 14 December 1932; C0127/213.ff.8-25,@19, PANS m/f 13.
- Allen, A. The Mi’kmaq of the Nineteenth Century & the Early Twentieth Century: A Part of the Aboriginal Title Claim of the Mi’kmaq First Nation of Nova Scotia; Treaty & Aboriginal Rights Research Centre: Shubenacadie, NS, Canada, 2000. [Google Scholar]
- Atlantic Canada Conservation Data Centre. 2020. Available online: http://accdc.com// (accessed on 24 July 2020).
- Young, T. L’nuwita’simk: A Foundational Worldview for a L’nuwey Justice System. Indig. Law J. 2016, 13, 75–102. [Google Scholar]
- Young, T. Ko’wey Net “Biodiversity”? 2018, pp. 10–11. Available online: https://ecologyaction.ca/sites/default/files/images-documents/Ecology%20&%20Action%20-%20Spring%202018%20-%20Online.pdf (accessed on 17 August 2020).
- Nova Scotia Archives. Peace and Friendship Treaties at the Nova Scotia Archives. Mi’kmaq Holdings Resource Guide. Province of Nova Scotia. Updated August 2020. Available online: https://novascotia.ca/archives/mikmaq/results.asp?Search=AR5&SearchList1=all&TABLE2=on (accessed on 30 August 2020).
1 | NS and NB—‘A community of practice to protect and recover species at risk on the Chignecto Isthmus’: Nature Conservancy of Canada and partners (e.g., Birds Canada, Community Forests International, Fort Folly Habitat Recovery Program, Confederacy of Mainland Mi’kmaq-Mi’kmaw Conservation Group) aim ‘to build and strengthen community relationships, develop a conservation plan, build public awareness and deliver programs benefiting species at risk. The project will benefit 20 listed species at risk … and 20 additional species of concern. It will occur in the Chignecto Isthmus region of both Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, covering 739,596 hectares.’ [59]. |
2 | An average measure from tide gauge records at Saint John, NB, estimates sea-level rise as 22 cm over the past century in the Bay of Fundy. This suggests that the current level is approximately 32 cm higher that at the time of the Saxby Gale when a storm surge breached the dykes, causing flooding that temporarily severed NS from NB [73] (p. 9). Historic trends and modelled projections show that even in the absence of climate change an increase in tidal high water in the order of 0.3 m can be expected in the Bay of Fundy over the next century. Combined with the influence of climate change, “high water in the Bay of Fundy is predicted to rise on the order of 0.5 m over the next 50 years, and on the order of 1 m by the end of the century” [71] (p. 274). |
3 | The 15 focal species in NCC’s Chignecto Isthmus connectivity analysis are moose, black bear, red fox, bobcat, snowshoe hare, fisher, northern flying squirrel, Barred Owl, Northern Goshawk, Pileated Woodpecker, Yellow Warbler, Brown Creeper, Ruffed Grouse, Boreal Chickadee and Blackburnian Warbler [48]. |
4 | Terms such as ‘validate’ and ‘verify’ can be contentious when talking about bringing together formal science and local tacit knowledge. Such words can imply a privileging of one form of knowledge over the other in terms of veracity, value, etc. What we mean by ‘verify’ is a form of ‘ground truthing’ based on local experiential and tacit knowledge, to identify areas of agreement and disagreement, which may then be further explored. In light of such concerns, we at times use ‘verify’ and at others ‘ground truth’, although we have not done ground checks in the field. |
5 | We assume that by ‘essentially’ the participant meant ‘almost’, as wolf, eastern cougar, woodland caribou and other historically present species have been extirpated over the past few centuries since Euro-American settlement. |
6 | Participant numbers (e.g., P27, P22) are used in reporting our results to de-identify individuals, consistent with our approved research ethics procedure for confidentially attributing paraphrases and quotes. |
7 | The native moose species (A. alces Americana) in NS was officially listed as provincially endangered in 2003 and remains only in small localized groups distributed across the mainland portion of NS, where hunting of this species has been prohibited since 1981; non-native moose introduced from Alberta in 1948–49 proliferate in Cape Breton Island, NS, where hunting of this introduced species is allowed (i.e., in Victoria County and Inverness County) [8,122] |
8 | |
9 | Resolution on Ecological Connectivity, Adaptation to Climate Change and Biodiversity Conservation [157]. |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Needham, J.L.; Beazley, K.F.; Papuga, V.P. Accessing Local Tacit Knowledge as a Means of Knowledge Co-Production for Effective Wildlife Corridor Planning in the Chignecto Isthmus, Canada. Land 2020, 9, 332. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9090332
Needham JL, Beazley KF, Papuga VP. Accessing Local Tacit Knowledge as a Means of Knowledge Co-Production for Effective Wildlife Corridor Planning in the Chignecto Isthmus, Canada. Land. 2020; 9(9):332. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9090332
Chicago/Turabian StyleNeedham, Jessica L., Karen F. Beazley, and Victoria P. Papuga. 2020. "Accessing Local Tacit Knowledge as a Means of Knowledge Co-Production for Effective Wildlife Corridor Planning in the Chignecto Isthmus, Canada" Land 9, no. 9: 332. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9090332
APA StyleNeedham, J. L., Beazley, K. F., & Papuga, V. P. (2020). Accessing Local Tacit Knowledge as a Means of Knowledge Co-Production for Effective Wildlife Corridor Planning in the Chignecto Isthmus, Canada. Land, 9(9), 332. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9090332