Exploring the Transformation Path and Enlightenment of Border Cities: A Case Study of Jilong, Tibet, China

Abstract

This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of the border city of Jilong in Tibet, China, within the wider context of the global south and the transformation of China’s interior frontier in recent decades. It examines the transformation process of Jilong, identifies the driving factors of its development, and investigates the implementation and impact of relevant policies. Employing a longitudinal case study method, semi-structured interviews, and multi-source data analysis (including policy documents, statistical bulletins, and field notes), this research examines Jilong’s transformation trajectory, the factors behind this change, and policy implementation outcomes. The findings reveal that Jilong has undergone a significant transition from a traditional border trade point to a national strategic hub. Industrial diversification, infrastructure modernization, and governance innovation are recognized as central to this transformation. Additionally, the study also finds challenges such as ecological vulnerability, geological disaster risk, and the necessity for enhancement in cross-border collaboration mechanisms, proposing measures like green development, customs facilitation, and a system for both importing and cultivating local talent. This research emphasizes the transformation of border cities from a complex interplay of national strategy, external shocks, and local initiative. It accordingly advocates for an integrated development model, which combines policy empowerment, resilient infrastructure, cultivation of distinctive industries, and refined border governance. This study adds to research on border cities in the Global South and provides insights for supporting sustainable development in similar cities located in strategic corridors.

1. Introduction

The United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal 11 (SDG11) aims to build cities that are inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable [1]. Nevertheless, an initial examination of sustainable urban studies conducted in the 2010s reveals a noticeable lack of research on “small and ordinary” cities [2,3], especially border cities, which have been the subject of intense international interest [4]. Within these urban contexts, there is a notable lack of understanding regarding the unique historical and present-day vulnerabilities, geopolitical influences, developmental aspirations, challenges, opportunities, and preferences of border cities for a sustainable urban future. This gap in knowledge could contribute to the southern urbanism debate [5] by incorporating wider evidence from decolonizing/post-colonializing/non-colonializing contexts. The pursuit of ‘inclusive’ cities (SDG 11) could be counterproductive to the New Urban Agenda of UN-Habitat III, which emphasizes secondary and ordinary cities over metropolitan areas and megacities [6], if these cities are not adequately incorporated into urban policy discourses. To address this gap in urban policy scholarship, this review provides a comprehensive analysis of Jilong City, a small border county with a population of 19,000 (as of 2023) in Tibet, China, that borders Nepal. The profiling primarily focuses on the opening-up phase in the areas of economic development, urbanization, and connectivity with Nepal since the launch of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in 2013.

A distinguishing feature of this city is its strategic geographical position, which has established it as a key node in China’s interactions with South Asia. Known as Jilong, or “auspicious city” in Tibetan, it has historically served as a crucial hub on the ancient trade routes linking China, Nepal, and India. This significance dates back to the late 8th century when the revered Buddhist master Padmasambhava journeyed through Jilong en route to Tibet. Deeply impressed by its scenic beauty, he affectionately dubbed the place “Jilong”. Since the Tang Dynasty, Jilong has been an essential gateway for the “Tang–Tibet Ancient Road” leading to Nepal and India, a role it continued to play during the Qing Dynasty. Between 1778 and 1781, the Qing central government sent troops to Jilong to confront the Gurkha army. Following the establishment of the People’s Republic of China (PRC), Jilong was designated as a national land port connecting China with Nepal. However, it encountered stiff competition from the Zhangmu port, another entry point to Nepal. With the introduction of the BRI in 2013, Jilong experienced renewed vigor, benefiting from national strategies such as the “National Border Cooperative Zone” and the “Trans-Himalaya Connectivity Network”. In contrast, the Zhangmu Port suffered extensive damage due to the 2015 earthquake and subsequent border closures affecting freight movement.

The city of Jilong has emerged as a crucial junction in the connectivity network between South Asia and China. Despite its characterization as a “small”, “ordinary”, and “frontier” city within the Chinese urban hierarchy system, it plays a significant role. While there is ample empirical research and conceptual evidence on the expansion and diversification of urbanization from both global North and South [7,8], there is an urgent need for more nuanced and grounded studies on the diversity and heterogeneity of urbanism within the context of the global decolonial, post-colonial, and non-colonial south [9]. The borderlands of China have experienced a series of state-led initiatives, including the “Go West Strategy” and the more recent BRI. These initiatives have manifested in the form of national preferential policies [10] and substantial connectivity megaprojects, aimed at industrializing local economies and aligning them with the more advanced industrialized regions of coastal areas. In this context, border cities can be viewed as integral components of “planetary urbanization” [11], serving as crucial nodes in the production, finance, and commodity trade networks that span both the surface and subsurface of the globe [12].

This study provides noteworthy contributions to two primary areas. First, in the context of globalization and de-/re-globalization, border cities are confronted with the dual challenges of ensuring security and fostering development. They not only serve as important spaces for economic accumulation and international connectivity but also function as areas for national territorialized security and trans-border connectivity. Simultaneously, they are confronted with substantial challenges, including geopolitical risks, geological and environmental fragility [13], a monolithic border petty economy, depopulated residences, inadequate infrastructure, and scarce human resources, all of which hinder their ability to achieve sustainable development goals. Therefore, the majority of border cities lack the essential capacity, such as a robust business environment, significant financial investments in technology [14], optimal land utilization, industrial restructuring [4], workforce adaptation, as well as expedited customs clearance, to attain these multifaceted sustainable objectives. Second, a comprehensive and detailed analysis of the border city of Jilong will contribute to diverse trajectories of global sustainable urbanism through comparative investigation and crystallizing variegated state recalling paths, thereby serving as a useful supplement to the current Eurocentric research perspective, further enriching the discussion on urban practices in the Global South. This study employs a comprehensive methodology, incorporating qualitative, in-depth interviews, meticulous handwritten records, and field notes. This study utilizes Jilong as a case study to comprehensively examine how border cities can successfully navigate their transformation trajectories amidst internal and external challenges. It aims to identify the critical factors that influence the development and transformation of such cities, and ultimately distill the lessons and insights gleaned from Jilong’s transformational journey. The story of Jilong transcends a mere case study, serving as a microcosm of the challenges and potential inherent in numerous border cities, even “secondary” and “ordinary” cities. Through a comprehensive exploration of temporal dimensions, this research elucidates the intricacies of such transformations. Furthermore, it provides significant insights that augment the broader discourse on urban sustainable development.

In operationalizing this study, we profile Jilong and contextualize the unique challenges faced by border cities in the Global South. Following an introduction to the context and theoretical underpinnings, Section 3 explores the geographical and urbanization characteristics of Jilong, in addition to delving into research design and data analysis methodologies. Section 4 examines Jilong’s transitions as a land port and connectivity hub along the China–Nepal corridor since the BRI and the Trans-Himalayan Connectivity Network. It then details critical challenges in border cities’ sustainable development, including geological fragility, a monolithic petty economy, depopulation, infrastructure gaps, human resource scarcity, and lack of trans-border economic agencies. To address these, national and local governments have implemented strategies like cross-border cooperation, industrial diversification, infrastructure investment (e.g., China–Nepal railway), tailored policy toolkits, and talent transfer. These initiatives reinvigorate Jilong through multifaceted approaches for sustainable urban transformation. This is succeeded by Section 5, which synthesizes the current developmental efforts, their achievements, and the challenges confronting sustainable development of border cities. In Section 6, we distill the implications of this urban profile for urban planning and advocate for a paradigm shift towards South Urbanism.

2. Reviewing Border Cities: Lessons and Strategies

Major border cities play a pivotal role in cross-border trade and globalization, with the most defining characteristic being an intrinsic duality paradox. Owing to their strategic location at the juncture of multiple countries, border cities function as vital “gateways” and “engines” facilitating international engagement. Consequently, they serve as a crucial catalyst for economic growth and facilitate swift integration into the global economic networks [15]. Nevertheless, as the “boundary” and “barrier” of national sovereignty, border cities also carry the brunt of security threats from geopolitical tensions as well as transnational non-traditional ones, such as drug trafficking, human trafficking, and telecom frauds. From the theoretical perspective of Brenner’s “new state space,” the dual “gateway–barrier” attribute essentially reflects the “territorial reorganization” of state power at the borderland [16]. Border cities thus serve not only as spatial vehicles for the state’s engagement with the global economy, but also as strategic nodes for safeguarding sovereign security [17]. The security–development nexus thus becomes a holistic guiding logic in the transformation of border cities, shaping their trajectory in an interconnected yet occasionally fractured world [18].

The global recognition of border cities’ unsustainable trajectories has intensified the urgency for transformative actions aligned with sustainable development principles. A notable case is European border cities, which have long been shaped by mobility shocks arising from complex ecological shifts, economic transformations, and geopolitical events. These cities have become gateways for growing migrant flows, prompting many states—even within the EU’s free movement zone—to respond with border closures and securitization measures. This dynamic highlights how historical vulnerabilities and contemporary migration pressures challenge the balance between openness and security in transnational urban spaces [19]. In fact, this predicament has precisely fallen into what Agnew critically termed the “territorial trap”—a conventional perception that equates state sovereignty with an absolute and fixed spatial category [20]. Such a perception overlooks the essence of borders: they are not static entities, but rather socially constructed products characterized by processuality and multi-scalarity [21]. In the context of China’s border cities, the focus lies in developing these cities as key nodes for contemporary urban regionalism, driving economic transformation through state-led orchestration and spatial restructuring, while capitalizing on new national policies [18]. In summary, border cities are managing transitions by adapting economically opening, responding to geopolitical influences, and implementing urban transformation strategies. These approaches are vital for enhancing their resilience and ensuring sustainable development in the face of ongoing economic and social changes.

Achieving successful transformation requires not only economic restructuring but also cross-border institutional regimes and place-geared policies. In China’s border city governance framework, the strategy for transforming border cities is predominantly characterized by top-down centralized planning, which integrates the historical legacy of its planned economy with geopolitical considerations [22]. Thus, the national state government has politically and economically constructed border cities as tools of security–development nexus by promoting border city regionalism in various forms, such as border village settlements, a metropolitan urban system of border provinces, and various economic and infrastructure policy toolkits to achieve full state sovereignty and ethnic integration [18].

The scholarship on the sustainable transformation of border cities highlights the crucial roles of inclusive governance and multistakeholder collaboration. Border cities, whose economic and social dynamics often depend highly on the qualities of the border, cross-border institutions, and trust relations, are contextual phenomena and should therefore be considered in relation to other spatial scales through global connection, particularly state institutions [23,24,25]. However, theories of planetary urbanization and other dominant frameworks in global urban studies frequently employ a perspective centered on the Global North and afford limited consideration to the Global South. This lack of engagement tends to overlook the distinct forms of value and agency inherent in Global South [26]. The development trajectories of border cities are strongly linked to border openings and closures, which often respond to geopolitical events and perceptions of global and national insecurity. Opening border cities entails proximity to foreign markets and labor, the possibility to leverage cost differentials, the diffusion and stimulation of new knowledge/ideas, and the cultivation of new regional identities and brands [15]. Thus, border cities are also argued to serve as “innovative platforms for multidimensional integration processes, which are needed for more sustainable ways of living” [27].

While existing research has documented cases of local governments deviating from central mandates [28], a significant gap persists in understanding how Chinese local governments navigate the complexities of border cities when implementing national border policies amid multiple constraints. This study fills this gap by examining border city transformation through a case study of Jilong’s industrial diversification and policy toolkits, demonstrating how diverse stakeholders can align with central directives to foster sustainable economic growth while securing borderland governance. By emphasizing the unique characteristics of border cities, this paper offers additional insights into the various ways in which cities are employed by the state to address international and national balance deficits [18]. In this context, border cities stand out as the toolbox, the arenas, and the outcomes of ongoing political restructuring and rescaling of the state across and beyond extensive borderlands, including both the Global North and South. This contributes to revitalizing and refining epistemological and practical urbanism in both the Global North and South, thereby facilitating a conjunctive inter-urban comparison [29].

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Study Area

Jilong county-level city, with a territory of 9300 km² and a population of about 20 thousand, is located in the southwest of Shigatze prefecture-level city, Tibet, bordering Nepal to the south with a borderline of 162 km. The border city administers four townships and two towns, including Gyirong Town, Zongga Town, Zheba Township, Chaina Township, Gongdang Township, and Sala Township. Most of these are located on the border with Nepal. The case city under study, comprising 41 administrative and 56 natural villages, is predominantly situated within the Mount Everest Nature Reserve. Notably, Jilong City, acting as a vital hub connecting South Asia and Tibet, is approximately 132 km from Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal, while it is 560 km from Shigatze City and 830 km from Lhasa City (Figure 1a).

Jilong City, located on the fringes of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau and straddling the central section of the Himalayas, spans from north to south across this mountainous region. The city is characterized by its vertically stratified landscapes. The entirety of the city lies on the northern slope of the Himalayas at an altitude of 4200 m, which is approximately 500 m higher than Lhasa, the capital of Tibet. Gyirong Town, which hosts a national port bordering Nepal, is positioned on the southern slope at a significantly lower altitude of around 2900 m. This location is marked by a subtropical climate, influenced by warm and humid air masses from the Indian Ocean, and is characterized by delicate geological and ecological environments (Figure 1b).

The small border city also accommodates a diverse population: the majority are Tibetan, 1% are Han and 1.9% are of other ethnicities, including Naga, Sherpa and others (Figure 2). Interestingly, the Daman people (‘达曼’ in Chinese) were one of the unrecognized ethnic groups in China. Descendants of 18th-century Gurkhas, they were officially classified as Tibetans in 2003. More than 200 Daman people live in a Daman village, near Gyirong Town. Jilong City has witnessed a relatively rapid population growth, with an annual rate of 1.59% over the past decade.

In 2023, Jilong City’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was recorded at 1.28 billion yuan. The primary sources of income for the majority of Tibetan farmers and herdsmen in this county-level city are cordyceps farming, yak rearing, and plant cultivation, which together contribute to 18% of the city’s GDP. In 2022, the annual production of Tibetan medicinal herbs, including Tianma and Lingzhi mushrooms, reached 3400 kg, generating an output value of 1.85 million yuan. One significant industry that benefits from state intervention in this small border city is the border trade. In 2022, there were over 500 registered enterprises in the Jilong Border Cooperation Zone, with a total investment of 1.65 billion yuan. However, most of these companies are shadow enterprises, with only 30 trade and logistics enterprises focusing on China–Nepal trade at Gyirong Town and national port. Additionally, this border city is an ideal tourism destination, leveraging its plateau scenery, border allure, and the ancient Tang–Tibetan road. Over the past decade, Jilong has received several key designations: an international port from the National Commercial Bureau, a national featured town from the National Ministry of Housing, and a cross-border tourism cooperation zone from the National Ministry of Culture and Tourism. In 2022, Jilong welcomed 46,000 tourists.

3.2. Research Design and Data Collection

This study adopted a longitudinal case study approach [30] to investigate Jilong’s transformation over six decades, with a specific focus on the recent decade—the BRI era. This period, characterized by central policies promoting opening up, has been instrumental in transitioning Jilong’s economy from a petty-trade frontier city to a border economic city. The longitudinal case study methodology is particularly effective for elucidating intricate relationships between events and outcomes across time and offers a retrospective perspective to examine the evolution of processes and underlying mechanisms.

This study adopted a multimethod approach that combined interviews, participation observation and document analysis for data collection, integrating insider and outsider perspectives to ensure depth and credibility [31]. The author conducted field surveys from 2018 to 2025, and sampled 52 key respondents, including 20 government officials, 15 enterprise managers and 17 local residents and tourists. The field surveys involved interviews with Tibetan residents (80%) and Han people (20%) ranging from their 20s to 60s. All interviews were meticulously structured around the primary aim of this study, which sought to delve into the driving forces, obstacles, and sustainable future directions of Jilong during its evolution as a significant border city in the China–Nepal corridor. The interview framework predominantly encompassed four key themes: “transformation perception and evaluation”, “challenges and constraining factors”, “development dynamics and opportunities”, and “sustainability and future paths”. In conversations with government officials, the focus was on ecological governance, industrial strategy, cross-border policies, and infrastructure development. Business managers were asked about operational impediments, infrastructure requirements, policy experiences, and potential for cross-border expansion. Conversely, residents and tourists were queried on their observations of changes to daily life, ecological impacts, tourism experiences, and interactions between Chinese and Nepalese populations across the border. The information and main viewpoints of the respondents are presented in Appendix A

Table A1. Interviewee Information and Main Viewpoints.

Category	Age	Ethnicity	Main Points	Code
Government officials	48	Tibetan	The ecological environment of Jilong city is relatively fragile, possessing a constrained capacity for resource carrying.	GO01
	52	Tibetan	In Jilong city, the degree of urbanization remains notably low, with a paucity of public service facilities.	GO02
	36	Tibetan	JBEZ has garnered substantial investments, fostering the advancement of the processing industry and tourism.	GO03
	55	Han	Owing to its elevated altitude and constrained space for human habitation and development, Jilong city incurs significant expenses for both developmental and security purposes.	GO04
	41	Tibetan	The frequent geological disasters in Jilong city have notably exacerbated the challenges associated with ecological governance.	GO05
	59	Han	Jilong city faces dual challenges in its governance: a vulnerable ecological environment and a precarious foundation for agricultural and livestock production.	GO06
	33	Tibetan	To boost household income, the manufacturing industry should prioritize developing distinctive ethnic handicrafts.	GO07
	45	Tibetan	Full integration of culture and tourism through the utilization of Jilong’s natural and cultural heritage.	GO08
	50	Tibetan	Prioritizing transportation infrastructure planning in Jilong city and accelerating the China–Nepal cross-border railway project.	GO09
	38	Han	The frequency of earthquakes and other geological disasters in Jilong city lead to the destruction of infrastructure such as housing and roads, disrupting the livelihoods of the residents.	GO10
	56	Tibetan	Recent years have seen a substantial rise in tourism in Jilong city, necessitating an improvement in government service capabilities and the enhancement of infrastructure.	GO11
	43	Han	Jilong city should integrate ecological and environmental protection into its overall development strategy.	GO12
	29	Tibetan	The potential should be harnessed to elevate the significance of Jilong Port in bolstering trade and cultural connections with Nepal.	GO13
	47	Tibetan	The Jilong government promotes tourism development by strengthening tourism publicity, organizing large-scale events, and creating distinctive cultural and tourism brands.	GO14
	54	Tibetan	The establishment of the JBEZ constitutes a pivotal development platform for Jilong city. Concurrently, the government proactively implements supportive policies to facilitate the comprehensive advancement of Jilong.	GO15
	39	Tibetan	Jilong city is characterized by a small population size and a limited availability of talents.	GO16
	51	Han	With support from national funds, Jilong city has enhanced infrastructure construction and advanced post-disaster reconstruction efforts.	GO17
	57	Tibetan	The establishment of JBEZ has drawn a considerable number of businesses to Jilong city, thereby infusing a new dynamism into the area’s economic development.	GO18
	48	Tibetan	JBEZ has introduced 24 related enterprises, and the number of foreign trade enterprises registered in Jilong has exceeded 200.	GO19
	49	Tibetan	The government has opened a convenient government service hall in JBEZ, dedicated to serving enterprises and residents.	GO20
Managers of entrepreneurs	32	Tibetan	The shortage of water supply, drainage, and sewage treatment infrastructure in Jilong city poses significant obstacles to enterprise development.	ME01
	45	Tibetan	The operation of the China–Nepal cross-border railway will serve as a catalyst for enhancing bilateral trade at Jilong city.	ME02
	51	Han	Within the framework of JBEZ, the government has implemented diverse policies to offer comprehensive nanny-like services. The purpose of these government services is to expedite the process of enterprise establishment and production.	ME03
	28	Tibetan	The border city is characterized by severe living conditions, resulting in a twofold talent development deficit: they struggle to consistently attract high-quality talents from external sources, and there is a noticeable lack of professional skills among local talents.	ME04
	56	Tibetan	The underdeveloped infrastructure of Jilong city presents a significant impediment to development, and its road transport system is notably susceptible to natural disasters.	ME05
	39	Han	The LSTC multimodal transport corridor enhances the logistics system by bolstering freight efficiency and diminishing transportation expenses.	ME06
	48	Tibetan	Joining the LSTC has improved Jilong’s transport links with inland Chinese cities and created new trade channels.	ME07
	36	Tibetan	The LSTC multimodal transport has significantly enhanced the market competitiveness of Chinese new energy vehicles in Nepal through reducing logistics costs.	ME08
	53	Tibetan	Jilong Customs has implemented a dedicated declaration window for domestically produced new energy vehicles. This measure is a significant factor contributing to its substantial increase in export volumes in recent years.	ME09
	41	Tibetan	Customs clearance efficiency at ports is a critical concern for enterprises, as it directly impacts their costs and loss rates.	ME10
	59	Tibetan	A key factor enticing enterprises to invest in Jilong city is the distinctive policies offered by JBEZ, including tax incentives and central financial subsidies.	ME11
	34	Tibetan	Jilong port, serving as a significant gateway to the Belt and Road, has garnered considerable attention from businesses seeking to establish operations. This strategic location enables them to effectively access and penetrate emerging markets.	ME12
	50	Tibetan	The allure of Jilong for Chinese herbal medicine companies lies in its copious local medicinal materials, coupled with the imported ones received through the port.	ME13
	43	Han	The company’s investment in Jilong city was driven by the potential long-term strategic opportunities offered by foreign trade and the Belt and Road Initiative.	ME14
	47	Tibetan	The construction of the China–Nepal cross-border railway has garnered significant attention from enterprises, who anticipate that it will reduce transport costs and expedite delivery times via rail transport.	ME15
Residents and tourists	22	Han	Due to its close proximity to Nepal, Jilong city offers a unique opportunity to immerse oneself in Nepali culture. Meanwhile, it attracts a significant number of Nepalese visitors who arrive via the Jilong port.	RT01
	35	Tibetan	During the COVID-19 pandemic, the exchange of both trade and people between Jilong city and Nepal was nearly suspended.	RT02
	64	Tibetan	The implementation of the grassland ecological protection subsidy and reward policy has led to notable improvements in the grassland ecological environment, as well as an increase in income for farmers and herdsmen.	RT03
	29	Tibetan	The contrast between the off- and on-season in Jilong’s tourism industry is highly pronounced, with recurrent road construction frequently impeding transportation.	RT04
	42	Tibetan	In recent years, Jilong city saw a rise in tourist numbers, which included many international visitors.	RT05
	37	Tibetan	The influx of a significant number of tourists has also led to issues such as environmental degradation.	RT06
	56	Han	Historically, the trade goods available at Jilong Port were limited and mainly comprised traditional primary products.	RT07
	25	Tibetan	Short video platforms such as TikTok significantly boosted Jilong’s popularity, thereby attracting a large number of visitors.	RT08
	31	Tibetan	In Jilong city, numerous Nepali shops exist where individuals can purchase a variety of Nepali products and frequently encounter Nepali people.	RT09
	51	Tibetan	The surge in tourism has prompted local residents to establish homestays, restaurants, and various other service-oriented businesses as their primary source of income.	RT10
	45	Tibetan	While the state-issued ecological protection subsidy has somewhat augmented the income of herdsmen, there remains ambiguity regarding the future production modes they can potentially develop.	RT11
	56	Tibetan	As an important channel leading to the Jilong Port, the highway is vulnerable to natural disasters such as earthquakes and flash floods.	RT12
	48	Tibetan	Jilong, a border city situated at the China–Nepal border, has seen a significant influx of Nepalese migrant workers, predominantly employed in the service sector.	RT13
	26	Tibetan	Tourists are drawn to Jilong primarily for its natural beauty and its unique features as a border city.	RT14
	33	Tibetan	As an increasing number of enterprises establish operations in Jilong city, the local populace now has more opportunities to find employment within the region.	RT15
	24	Han	Jilong city boasts of exquisite natural scenery. Additionally, its status as a Chinese–Nepalese border city imbues it with a rich Nepalese character. This is evident in the local Nepalese shops where Nepalese shopkeepers are a common sight.	RT16
	29	Tibetan	Despite its stunning natural landscape, Jilong city is confronted with notable challenges including inconvenient transportation and inadequate signal coverage.	RT17

. They provided valuable information on urban development and future trends, and rich descriptions of individual experiences and practices in Jilong. In general, structured face-to-face interviews lasting less than 30 min were audio recorded and later coded and analyzed. To maintain anonymity, the names and identifying details of the interviewees have been withheld, and they have been assigned codes (e.g., GO01, ME02, RT03). Moreover, the research also extensively relies on secondary sources, such as policy documents, meeting minutes, news reports, local historical materials, and statistical yearbooks, to enrich background information and support the diachronic analysis of border industry changes.

3.3. Data Analysis

The research conducted a meticulous thematic analysis on the qualitative data procured through comprehensive interviews and participant observations. All interviews were meticulously documented, and the primary perspectives of the respondents were synthesized to create a word cloud (Figure 3). High-frequency keywords such as “governance”, “tourism”, “border”, “trade”, and “transport” emerged, reflecting the core issues of common concern. High-frequency keywords directly correspond to the three major dimensions of research on “China–Nepal channel node cities”—“Transformation Paths” (e.g., Jilong National Border Economic Cooperation Zone (JBEZ) platform, cross-border trade, tourism development), “Challenges” (e.g., ecological vulnerability, talent shortage, insufficient infrastructure) and “Future Measures” (e.g., China–Nepal Railway, ecological protection, talent cultivation), reflecting a high degree of alignment between interview content and research questions. For instance, terms like “ecological vulnerability” and “infrastructure” emphasize the primary challenges associated with green and sustainable development, such as the infrastructural damage caused by geological disasters and the ecological strain due to tourism. Conversely, terms like “JBEZ” and “cross-border trade” highlight crucial strategies for transformation. Collectively, they form a “dilemma-response” logical framework, offering empirical evidence for the countermeasure system proposed in Section 4.3. Notably, terms like “cross-border trade” and “infrastructure” were frequently mentioned in interviews with government, enterprise, and resident groups. This suggests that enhancing “China–Nepal interconnectivity” is a shared priority for Jilong’s transformation and has garnered widespread consensus for future policy directions.

Essentially, this analytical process served two key purposes. Firstly, it traced the chronological development of Jilong’s industrial transformation over time. Secondly, it shed light on the intricate challenges that emerged when attempting to combine national border security with economic necessities. By connecting top-level policy initiatives with the lived experiences of local stakeholders, our findings deliver a nuanced and valuable insight into the sustainable regional development and transformation of border cities within the framework of China’s BRI era.

4. Results

4.1. The Petty Trade Path in Border City

4.1.1. Phase I: Navigating the Petty Trade of the Border City

Petty trade refers to a small-scale commercial activity that is usually cross-border. This form of trade has served as the bedrock of Jilong’s development, underpinned by diverse connections—including those from South Asian trade, Trans-Himalayan Buddhist exchanges, the ancient Silk Route trade, kinship ties, and the networks and flows of resources and ideas [32]. Historically, the commodities involved in cross-border petty trade have included wool, musk, tea, and salt transported from Srinagar to Lhasa, as well as clothing and household appliances shipped from the Chinese mainland to Kathmandu [33]. In this vein, the Jilong–Rasuwagadhi and Zhangmu–Kodari regions, located at the Chinese and Nepalese counterpart land ports, respectively, play a pivotal role in transforming border areas into prosperous trade hubs and modern cities. This is largely due to their strategic positions within the China–Nepal trade routes and infrastructure flows, which include roads, internet cables, energy, and a broader range of material and imaginary circulations. In 1961, the Chinese State Council designated Jilong as the national land port, and subsequently elevated its status to that of a national first-class land port in 1987.

The transformation from a border-trade-based economy to a burgeoning diversified modern city was still plagued by challenges, and Jilong was no exception. The economic potential of Jilong City, primarily driven by petty trade, remains untapped. A prevalent trend in urban areas is the prosperity stemming from active border trade; however, this pattern is conspicuously absent in Jilong. The population on both the Nepali and Chinese sides is spread over a vast area, hindering the growth of petty border trade. According to Jilong customs statistics, the current border trade at the Jilong port primarily consists of small-scale cross-border transactions. The exported goods predominantly include fruits, daily necessities, and textiles, while the imports are mainly copper products, handicrafts, and a limited quantity of Chinese medicinal materials. “I remember that in the past several decades, we could only buy a few single items, such as yak butter tea and wool through Jilong port.” said Langzhen, a villager from the border (RT07). Moreover, despite its location in Southwest China, the scale of petty trade in Jilong was significantly influenced by the bilateral relationship between Nepal and China. The petty trade across the border was halted due to the COVID pandemic from 2021 to 2023.

4.1.2. Phase 2: Petty Trade Transitions Since the 2015 Earthquake

Jilong City is distinguished by its unique landscapes, especially following the inauguration of its land port, Jilong Port, with Nepal in 1961. However, in 1972, Jilong Port was designated as a National Class 2 port, a ranking inferior to its counterpart, Zhangmu Port, located in Shigatse City and recognized as a national first-class port. This distinction sparked competition between the two ports (

Table 1. Comparisons of Jilong and Zhangmu.

Port	Distance from Shigatse (km)	Distance from Kathmandu (km)	Population (Person)	Area (km2)	Elevation (m)	Counterpart City in Nepal
Jilong	560	132	3946	747	2600	Rasuwa District
Zhangmu	473	120	2184	334	2300	Sindhupalchowk District

). In its early years, Zhangmu Port emerged as the primary hub for China–Nepal trade, bolstered by its proximity to the China–Nepal highway (also known as Highway 318, stretching from Shanghai to Zhangmu). Historically, Zhangmu’s trade volume accounted for more than half of China’s trade with Nepal and over 90% of Tibet’s trade with Nepal. In contrast, Jilong Port was only partially operational, as it permitted solely border petty trade. Cross-border tourism was conspicuously absent in Jilong. Transactions were primarily conducted using Nepalese rupees and Chinese yuan, rather than US dollars, with bartering being another common practice. Following the expansion of Zhangmu Port and the significant reduction in import and export activities at Jilong Port, the customs and commodity inspection departments, established in 1972, were dissolved.

Commencing in 2014, a sequence of four major natural disasters severely impacted the Zhangmu–Kodari corridor. The initial major landslide in 2014 was followed by the 2015 earthquake, and subsequent floods in 2015 and 2017, which extensively damaged large sections of the road, bridges, and even a segment of a hydroelectric dam. Thus, the competition between Jilong and Zhangmu changed abruptly on 25 April 2015, when a massive earthquake (7.8 Mw) hit central Nepal and the Tibetan border with an epicenter in Gorkha district [34]. Before the earthquake, Zhangmu Port was the only national first-class land port facing Nepal, accounting for 80% of Nepal’s trade volume. The import and export trade volumes at Zhangmu Port from 2011 to 2014 were $1.01 billion, $1.782 billion, $2.044 billion, and $2.067 billion, respectively. By 2018, the Chinese side of the corridor had not yet reopened due to ongoing consolidation efforts, while the Nepalese side remained ill-equipped to accommodate loaded trucks. These geological and hydrological incidents significantly influenced the decision to concentrate capital investment into the Jilong–Rasuwagadhi corridor, following China’s completion of the final 17 km section of the road to the border on the Nepali side in 2012 [35].

4.1.3. Phase 3: The Diversified Development Propelled by the Belt and Road Initiative

Since the earthquake, Jilong city was further anointed as the nexus hub of China–Nepal cross-border cooperation at both the national and provincial levels. In April 2017, a memorandum of understanding (MOU) was formally signed between the Ministry of Commerce of China and the Ministry of Industry of Nepal on establishing the China–Nepal Cross-Border Economic Cooperation Zone during the BRI International Cooperation Summit [36]. This advance secured Jilong’s role as the nexus hub of China–Nepal cross border cooperation and introduced a novel paradigm for border cooperation through the special economic zones (SEZs) of border areas.

In March 2022, China officially sanctioned the creation of the JBEZ. This development has expedited Jilong’s transformation into a comprehensive pivot city along the China–Nepal economic corridor. The establishment of the JBEZ has enticed substantial investments and induced an influx of enterprises, thereby notably stimulating regional economic activity (GO03, ME11) and overcoming the constraints of a previously petty trade-dependent development. The availability of the LSTC multi-modal transport corridor has facilitated the expansion of Jilong’s industrial framework from traditional border trade to high-value-added sectors such as new energy vehicle exports (ME08). Concurrently, the integration of cultural tourism is emerging as a novel feature of Jilong’s urban persona. The local administration capitalizes on its geographical advantage as a “cultural intersection between China and Nepal”, and it ardently promotes tourism through increased promotional efforts, hosting of large-scale events, and the establishment of characteristic cultural tourism brands (GO14). Most notably, under the auspice of the Belt and Road Initiative, the growing frequency of personnel exchanges and heartfelt connections ensure a steady influx of tourists and sustained market interest in the local tourism industry. As a result, Jilong is steadily evolving into a modern port city with diversified functions and integrated industry and urban spaces.

4.2. Identifying the Development Factors of Border Cities

4.2.1. Ecological Fragility

Jilong City, situated on the northern slope of the Himalayas, is notable for being the site of approximately 15% of the major earthquakes (with a magnitude exceeding 8) that occurred in the 20th century [37]. This region, characterized by high seismic activity, overlaps with areas of ethnic residences and is prone to landslides and glacial lake outburst floods. These natural phenomena significantly impede the residents’ ability to produce and live, given the harsh natural conditions, frequent geological and natural disasters, soil desertification, and grassland degradation that characterize this remote border area (GO10). Consequently, for the Jilong state government, the governance of the ecological environment takes precedence over development initiatives. The location of Jilong within the Mount Everest Nature Reserve further complicates matters, making it virtually impossible to approve new construction projects or investments due to the immense pressure to protect the ecological environment. According to the overall land use plan for Jilong City (2006–2020), the amount of land allocated for construction only constitutes 0.07% of the city’s total land area. Furthermore, recent years have seen an exacerbation of issues such as soil desertification, grassland degradation, and frequent natural disasters. The frequent occurrence of natural disasters further threatens the stability of agricultural and livestock production in Jilong.

4.2.2. Insufficient Infrastructure

Despite the numerous benefits associated with Jilong’s position at the crossroads of China–Nepal trade, local municipal authorities and residents face significant planning challenges. These include inadequate infrastructure and facilities. The city’s infrastructure is particularly vulnerable due to frequent natural disasters such as landslides and mudslides, which not only disrupt public transportation but also severely limit trade logistics, tourism, and overall economic growth (ME05, RT12). As a result, the county’s foreign trade potential remains largely untapped. To date, Jilong has yet to be integrated into the central Tibetan power grid, leaving it frequently without electricity and causing significant inconvenience to border residents and private households. Additionally, the city faces issues related to limited water supply, insufficient village-level waste management systems, and inadequate sewage treatment infrastructure. These issues significantly hinder the sustainable development efforts of both residents and urban municipal authorities.

4.2.3. Labor Force Predicament

The term ‘demographic dividend’ is largely irrelevant to Jilong city, given its significant distance from the majority of Chinese metropolitan regions and its sparse population density of merely 2 persons/km². As of 2023, Jilong City, spanning an impressive 9024 km², hosts a total of 20,000 residents. The city’s population distribution is uneven, with a higher concentration in the southern regions and a sparse population in the north, reflecting a significant demographic disparity. The city is predominantly inhabited by the Tibetan ethnic group, and animal husbandry is the primary occupation. The city lacks innovative, technical, and leading professionals, which compromises the quality of its human capital and presents substantial challenges to its potential for high-quality development. Despite the thriving border trade and the presence of Nepalese cross-border workers, these laborers are primarily involved in the service sector or basic primary industries (RT13, RT16). The local state governments of Jilong are confronted with substantial challenges in maintaining these cross-border labor forces in a sustainable manner.

4.2.4. Policy Support

The transition from a border-trade-centric economy to a rapidly evolving, diversified modern city can be traced back to the inception of the BRI in 2014, when Jilong Port was assigned as a pilot land port to connect Nepal in national scheme [38]. Since then, the acceleration of Jilong’s development has been a paramount objective for the city government. Concurrently, the bilateral ports of Jilong in China and Resuowa in Nepal resumed customs operations. Notably, a broader stone slab bridge was constructed to replace the former narrow iron chain bridge, benefiting the border residents in Nepal. Besides, the BRI aims at forging a connection between Nepal and China, and entails the construction of a railway line, Himalaya Airlines, six major highways, a gas pipeline, and electricity transmission lines to interlink Nepal and China. Crossing the fragile and difficult Himalayan terrain poses the greatest uncertainty for these projects, but there is faith and confidence in both Nepal and China that these infrastructure projects will constitute the ‘new reality’ in the Himalayas [32].

4.3. Strategies and Insights for the Transformation of Border Cities

The case of Jilong has clarified several significant obstacles that border cities encounter on the path to sustainable development. It seems that Jilong is ensnared in a vicious cycle due to its geological and environmental fragility, a monolithic border petty economy, depopulated residences, insufficient infrastructure, scarce human resources, and a lack of trans-border economic agencies. In response to these issues, various strategies have been implemented by national and local state governments. The following section details these challenges and strategies.

4.3.1. Enhance Cross-Border Cooperation

The remarkable development of cross-border cooperation in Jilong serves as a cornerstone for its transformation, demonstrating the efficacy of aligning regional development with national diplomatic policy. This alignment is exemplified by the 2017 upgrade of Jilong–Rasuwa ports to an international passage, which permitted third-country nationals to utilize this route, significantly boosting Jilong’s status as a gateway and its global appeal [39]. This policy innovation directly catalyzed economic growth, culminating in a cumulative border trade volume of 2.8 billion yuan by 2017 and attracting a cluster of 26 commercial enterprises, 7 customs declaration firms, and 7 logistics companies. This cooperative framework was further strengthened by the 2019 elevation of China–Nepal relations to a strategic partnership. This high-level diplomatic commitment provided the impetus for concrete projects, most notably the formal establishment of the Jilong Border Economic Zone (JBEZ) and the advancement of the Trans-Himalayan Multi-dimensional Connectivity Network [40]. These initiatives illustrate how top-down national mandates can be effectively translated into on-the-ground development.

Crucially, Jilong’s success emphasizes the importance of proactive local agency within a national framework. The Tibetan local government actively leveraged these policies, successfully securing the designation of JBEZ as a National Pilot Development and Opening-up Experimental Zone. This demonstrates that border cities should not passively wait for policies but actively seek and utilize them. Furthermore, integrating Jilong into a broader regional economic corridor—connecting it to the China–Nepal Friendship Industrial Park in Shigatze and the Lhasa Comprehensive Bonded Zone—has been key. This strategy transforms the border city from an isolated node into a vital link within an integrated regional economic network, increasing its economic reach and strategic value.

4.3.2. Diversified Development of Industries

The transition from a border-trade-centric economy to a diversified modern city necessitates the establishment of a robust and open business model. The experience of Jilong demonstrates that the establishment of the Jilong Border Economic Zone (JBEZ) serves as a critical catalyst for this process, enabling a shift from small-scale petty trade to a diverse array of imported and exported products. A cornerstone of this strategy is leveraging modern logistics corridors to enhance competitiveness. By capitalizing on its pivotal role within the New International Land–Sea Trade Corridor (LSTC), Jilong has enhanced the efficiency of goods turnover and reduced transportation costs (ME06). The import and export of goods through the JBEZ accounted for 77% of Tibet’s total import and export in 2019. Affected by the pandemic, it dropped to 30.3% in 2023 (Figure 4). This is vividly demonstrated by the remarkable success of New Energy Vehicle (NEV) exports to the South Asian market. The LSTC multimodal transport significantly reduces logistical costs and transit time, a key factor behind the dispatch of 5231 domestic NEVs with a trade value of 666 million yuan in the first three quarters of 2024 (ME08) (Figure 5). This exemplifies how strategic infrastructure can create new, high-value export niches.

Concurrently, repurposing cultural and natural heritage for tourism has emerged as another vital pillar of diversification [42]. Moving beyond initial challenges of limited recognition and underdeveloped routes, proactive efforts to position Jilong as a significant hub for comprehensive collaboration with South Asia have yielded substantial results. These efforts, facilitated by the JBEZ platform, include participating in international conferences (e.g., Nepal International Trade Fair), hosting forums (e.g., Pan-Himalayan ‘BRI Cooperation Forum’), and organizing local cultural tourism festivals. This targeted promotion led to a 38.9% year-on-year increase in visitors, totaling 347,000, and tourism revenue of 3.4 billion yuan in 2024 (GO11, RT05).

4.3.3. Strengthen Infrastructure Construction

The strategic advancement of multimodal infrastructure is fundamental to upgrading a border city’s economic function and regional connectivity. Jilong’s experience emphasizes that infrastructure development must be forward-looking, integrated, and aligned with broader national strategic networks. A paramount example is the active advancement of the Trans-Himalayan Multi-Dimensional Connectivity Network under the BRI framework. The keystone of this network is the China–Nepal Cross-Border Railway, a project of mutual strategic importance that was a focal point during Chinese President Xi Jinping’s state visit to Kathmandu in October 2019 [43] and progressed to the feasibility study phase conducted by Chinese railway experts in 2022 [44]. This railway-centric vision, extending from Shigatse to Kathmandu, aims to transcend topographical barriers to enhance connectivity not only between Nepal and China but also with other countries in the region [45]. Complementing this, the initiation of the China–Nepal overland cross-border optical cable in 2018 represents a critical investment in “soft” infrastructure, facilitating digital connectivity and Nepal’s access to Chinese Internet services.

Furthermore, infrastructure planning must be systematic and zonal to maximize functional efficiency. The development of the Shigatze Economic Development Zone exemplifies this approach. It was strategically planned to function as a key entry point for the BRI and a nexus hub for trade logistics radiating to South Asia. This was operationalized through specialized zoning: designating Resuowa village as a joint checkpoint facility; leveraging the Bangxing Zone’s location for a modern international logistics base; developing a living zone in Jilong County with commercial, residential, and administrative service complexes; and planning a secondary border checkpoint and free trade zone in the Zhuotang zone (Figure 6). This model demonstrates that effective infrastructure construction involves not just building isolated projects but orchestrating a synergistic ecosystem of facilities—encompassing logistics, housing, administration, and trade—that collectively support the border city’s upgraded role.

4.3.4. Implementing a Talent Introduction and Cultivation Plan

Addressing severe human capital shortages is a prerequisite for the sustainable transformation of resource-scarce border regions. Jilong, with an expansive area of 9300 km², has a low population density of 2 persons/km² and a minimal urbanization rate of less than 30%. These factors indicate that bridging the “talent gap” necessitates proactive, multi-faceted policy interventions coupled with the enhancement of local institutional capabilities.

A core strategy involves maximizing national top-down support mechanisms. Jilong effectively leveraged the “Pairing Aid Policy”, a central government initiative designed to support underdeveloped regions [46]. The partnership with Jilin Province has been instrumental, yielding 15 aid projects with a total investment of 91.64 million yuan (2021–2023) [47]. Crucially, this policy transcends mere financial investment by emphasizing the transfer of expertise and knowledge infrastructure, evidenced by the temporary reassignment of 66 cadres and technical professionals from Jilin to Jilong. Furthermore, leveraging the platform of the Ministry of Commerce (MOFCOM), which organized specialized training for 299 grassroots cadres in advanced regions (e.g., Zhejiang, Sichuan) on rural revitalization, e-commerce, and tourism, was vital for broadening local perspectives and building governance capacity.

Concurrently, building local institutional “agency” is equally critical. Recognizing that talent is not just about individuals but also about supportive organizations, the Jilong government proactively established the Jilong Border Trade Association in 2022. This institution serves as a key border agency, effectively bridging multiple stakeholders—government, businesses, residents, and tourists—and creating a more cohesive ecosystem for economic activity. This was complemented by enacting a series of localized facilitation policies, such as the “single-window” system for international trade, customized nanny-style services for enterprises, and streamlined customs clearance for Nepali drivers. These measures lower the operational barriers for businesses and make the locale more attractive for external investment and talent. By 2024, Jilong is home to 24 international enterprises, and more than 200 small enterprises involved in foreign trade, logistics, and import and export processing, with the total volume of foreign trade imports and exports reaching 12.9 billion yuan [48].

4.3.5. Constructing Policies Tailored to Local Conditions

The transformation of border regions requires highly contextualized and multi-scalar policy toolkits that align national strategic objectives with local geographical, economic, and social realities. Jilong’s development exemplifies how innovative regime experimentations can be effectively deployed in challenging Himalayan border environments to foster balanced regional development [49]. A critical strategy is the targeted designation and development of nodal border towns. As outlined in the 14th Five-Year Plan (2021–2025) of Tibet, Jilong is identified as a significant border development node, alongside others like Medog and Yadong [50]. This strategic positioning translates into concrete actions: the acceleration of smart land ports, the enhancement of petty border trade, improvements in public service facilities, and the critical upgrading of ecological and living conditions. A notable emphasis is placed on “Last mile service delivery”, ensuring the extension of the primary power grid to all border towns, comprehensive mobile communication network coverage, village-wide mail delivery, and access to safe drinking water. This comprehensive approach ensures that development is not only economic but also social and ecological, holistically addressing the needs of border communities.

Furthermore, precision poverty alleviation campaigns demonstrate the efficacy of locally adapted policies. The 2017 “Battle Against Poverty in Jilong” successfully transitioned the county from a state of underdevelopment to a key gateway for China’s engagement with South Asia [51]. This was achieved not through generic aid but by cultivating four major locally suited industries: Holba sheep breeding, cultural tourism, forest resource cultivation and processing, and border trade logistics. A specific project, the Holba sheep breeding and artificial grass planting initiative (investment: 45 million RMB, area: 5122 mu), employed a multi-stakeholder poverty alleviation model that integrated enterprises, breeding bases, and impoverished households. This model, coupled with skill training programs, ensured each household possessed at least one wealth-generating skill, leading to the successful uplift of all 37 administrative villages (748 households, 2687 individuals) out of poverty by 2018 [52].

Finally, receiving and implementing tailored urban policies is essential for comprehensive upgrading. Recognition as a national featured tourism town unlocked top-down support for new district infrastructure (roads, water plants, underground cables) and village beautification. Post-earthquake reconstruction efforts, which replaced adobe housing with reinforced concrete structures and improved village environments, further illustrate how national resources can be directed to address specific local vulnerabilities and significantly enhance livability and appeal (Figure 7).

5. Discussion

Like many other border cities in the Global South, the dominant image of Jilong is one of a dystopian future defined by its frontier location and precarious socioeconomic and environmental conditions. As secondary or ordinary cities are increasingly seen as the new urban agenda [2,6], it is important to understand the barriers and enablers for such a transition in order to develop comparatively diverse pathways that could alleviate, if not resolve, problems experienced by those in the North. The “problem-space” of cities in the Global South is complex and dynamic [5] and, as in the case of Jilong, encompasses geological, environmental, social, economic, and cultural.

However, the sustainable transformation of Jilong city may be unachievable if state governance officials overlook the complexities and uniqueness of border cities in the Global South. These cities serve multiple functions; they are not only significant economic accumulation and international spaces but also national territorialized security and trans-border connectivity spaces. Concurrently, they grapple with the dilemma of a neoliberal policy of economic integration into globalization and geopolitical issues inherent in their border positions. In this context, opening up and aligning state spaces with the discipline of external markets appears to be a strategy for border cities to generate greater profits and economic power than would be possible under a protectionist policy. This approach enables them to gain relative economic power and, consequently, enhance their foreign geopolitical influence in neighboring regions [53].

Beyond the global city paradigm [54], there is an urgent need to contextualize and conceptualize border cities like Jilong through a post-colonial lens in case comparison studies. This kind of research can effectively compensate for the deficiencies in urban studies conducted in the global South, and further enrich our comprehension of unconventional urban development trajectories. Despite many theoretical efforts towards cities in the Global South, these efforts have not been in line with the development of the meticulous empirical approach necessary for a comprehensive understanding of Southern cities. Consequently, it is crucial for urban scholarship to focus on the southern urbanity that characterizes many Southern cities, albeit in different combinations and manifestations. This would involve exploring the problem-space of their cities and contributing to a paradigm of southern urbanism [5].

The neoliberal perspective facilitates the transformation of border cities by encouraging openness, yet it simultaneously grapples with the exclusion of various groups and unpredictable security threats [55]. In the instance of Jilong city, multiple state rescaling processes have been observed, such as opening up to Nepal and competing with Zhangmu port. These processes occur in diverse national, regional, and local contexts, both within and beyond extensive borderlands. In this regard, border cities emerge as the tools, arenas, and outcomes of ongoing political restructuring and rescaling of multiple state actors across vast borderlands and beyond, encompassing both the Global North and South. Consequently, we engage with the ongoing debates concerning “southern urbanism” and align ourselves with broader research that emphasizes border cities as a means of examining the spatiality and selectivity of state power through various institutional forms, policy agendas by diverse actors (state, market, and society) nested in a hierarchical top-down governance regime, as well as trans-border competitive municipalism entrepreneurship [9].

The city of Jilong has been historically trapped in a cycle of general decline due to its unfavorable geological and environmental conditions, a monolithic border petty economy, depopulated residences, inadequate infrastructure, scarce human resources, and a dearth of trans-border economic agencies. However, the development of the BRI since the 2010s, coupled with Jilong’s unique position along the China–Nepal corridor, has fostered alignment between central and local government objectives. In the context of a prominent national strategy, Jilong City has seen the implementation of border developmentalism policy toolkits and projects such as the Jilong Border Economic Zone (JBEZ), spanning tourism, logistics, biomedicine, agriculture, and cross-border infrastructure investment. These initiatives attracted and mobilized talents within and beyond the region. This approach not only stimulated local authorities at various levels to pursue developmental governance both externally and internally but also highlighted the interplay of political interests with economic benefits stemming from increased openness and cross-border connectivity. Thus, the drive for border economic transformation was not exclusively a result of authoritarian top-down political pressures; rather, it emerged from strategic decisions influenced by enhanced local resource capacities and the pursuit of new opportunities by state-led entrepreneurism and various market agencies [56].

6. Conclusions

This study examines the transformation of Jilong, China, from a remote border city to a thriving urban hub renowned for its cross-border connectivity and alignment with Habitat III’s new urban agenda. Prior empirical analyses of Jilong City have demonstrated that alterations in the border landscape over the past decade reflect a strategic balance in discourse, investment, and institutional outcomes across various state scales. This comprehensive analysis of Jilong City encompasses not only trans-border circuitry forces, such as trade products, materials, migrations, and tourists, but also multiple state spaces in the form of discourse or praxis. These are designed to address the constantly changing geopolitical environment and territorial distribution dynamics, orchestrated both within and beyond national state governance.

By focusing on various toolkits for opening up along borders, a transnational bridge of connectivity is evident. Jilong’s development showcases how border opening policies—including economic zones, industrial diversification, the China–Nepal railway, and policy innovations—create transnational connectivity bridges. Nevertheless, it is crucial to acknowledge the numerous challenges confronting border cities, such as geological and ecological vulnerability, inadequate infrastructure, sparse population density, and the evolution of a cross-border economy. These challenges demand further cross-cutting transfers among a large number of frontier secondary cities in both the Global North and South. The sustainable development potential of border cities, such as Jilong and others in the Global South, will remain elusive unless urban scholarship fully engages with the complexities of their border urbanism paradigms.