The Spatial and Temporal Structure of Extreme Rainfall Trends in South Korea
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials
3. Method
3.1. Block Bootstrap-Based Mann-Kendall Test
- (1)
- Estimate the test statistic S of the MK from the original time series. The test statistic S is given as follows:
- (2)
- Estimate the number of significant contiguous autocorrelations k. When the autocorrelation is smaller than 5% significant level, the lag of the autocorrelation becomes k.
- (3)
- Resample the original time series a large number of times using blocks of size k + g.
- (4)
- Estimate the test statistic S for each simulated sample to produce a simulated distribution of the test statistic S.
- (5)
- Estimate the significance (p-value) of the test statistic S estimated in Step 1 using the simulated distribution from Step 3.
3.2. Modified Version of Mann-Kendall Test
3.3. Scaling Property of Extreme Rainfall Events
4. Application
5. Results
5.1. Trends in Time Series of Annual Maximum Rainfall
5.2. Trends in Temporal Structure of the Time Series of Annual Maximum Rainfall
6. Discussion
6.1. Characteristics of Spatial and Temporal Structure of Extreme Rainfall Trends in South Korea
6.2. Limitation of the Employed Methodology
7. Conclusions
- Significant trends are detected at a small number of stations, while no significant trends in extreme rainfall events can be found at many stations for the durations examined. Significant trends are sporadically detected at a few stations and for a few durations. There is no spatial pattern of the detected trends.
- There is large variability in the temporal structures of the extreme rainfall events. The scaling exponent estimates of the AM series in South Korea range from 0.25 to 0.5. The scaling exponent estimates in the inland part of the country are approximately 0.35. Large values of the scaling exponent are observed in the northeast, and small values of the scaling exponent are observed in the northeast. Additionally, the interannual variability in the temporal structure of the AM series is very large during the rainy season. The variations in the scaling exponent estimates during the rainy season are larger than those inferred using annual data. The spatial distribution of the scaling exponent estimates during the rainy season displays no dominant tendency. The spatial distributions of the scaling exponents for each month are dissimilar.
- Significant trends exist in the temporal structures of extreme rainfall events at many stations in South Korea. Decreasing trends are observed at many stations located in the coastal area, particularly in the southwest, whereas increasing trends are observed in the inland part of the country. The variability in the AM series with different durations in the inland part of the country is increasing over time. Additionally, the interannual variability in the trends in the temporal structure of extreme rainfall in South Korea is large. The spatial distributions of the trends for the time series of scaling exponent estimates differ by month.
Supplementary Materials
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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No. | Name | Record Length (year) | Elevation (m) | No. | Name | Record Length (year) | Elevation (m) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Daegwallyeong | 45 | 772.43 | 33 | Yeongdeok | 44 | 41.2 |
2 | Jecheon | 44 | 263.1 | 34 | Pohang | 56 | 1.3 |
3 | Chungju | 44 | 113.7 | 35 | Namhae | 44 | 43.2 |
4 | Wonju | 44 | 150.7 | 36 | Geoje | 44 | 44.5 |
5 | Yangpyeong | 44 | 47.4 | 37 | Masan | 32 | 36.8 |
6 | Icheon | 44 | 90 | 38 | Tongyeong | 49 | 30.8 |
7 | Inje | 44 | 198.7 | 39 | Geumsan | 44 | 170.6 |
8 | Chuncheon | 51 | 76.8 | 40 | Chupungnyeong | 56 | 240.9 |
9 | Hongcheon | 44 | 146.2 | 41 | Boeun | 44 | 173 |
10 | Seoul | 56 | 85.5 | 42 | Daejeon | 48 | 62.6 |
11 | Suwon | 53 | 34.5 | 43 | Cheongju | 50 | 56.4 |
12 | Incheon | 56 | 69 | 44 | Buyeo | 44 | 11 |
13 | Ganghwa | 44 | 46.2 | 45 | Cheonan | 45 | 21.3 |
14 | Sokcho | 49 | 22.9 | 46 | Seosan | 49 | 25.2 |
15 | Gangneung | 56 | 26.1 | 47 | Gunsan | 49 | 26.9 |
16 | Taebaek | 32 | 714.2 | 48 | Boryeong | 44 | 17.9 |
17 | Andong | 39 | 140.7 | 49 | Jeonju | 56 | 61 |
18 | Yeongju | 44 | 210.5 | 50 | Jeongeup | 44 | 39.5 |
19 | Mungyeong | 44 | 170.8 | 51 | Buan | 44 | 3.6 |
20 | Uiseong | 44 | 82.6 | 52 | Imsil | 44 | 248 |
21 | Gumi | 44 | 47.4 | 53 | Namwon | 44 | 93.5 |
22 | Daegu | 56 | 57.3 | 54 | Wando | 45 | 27.7 |
23 | Yeongcheon | 44 | 93.3 | 55 | Suncheon | 43 | 74.4 |
24 | Geochang | 44 | 221.4 | 56 | Goheung | 44 | 53.3 |
25 | Hapcheon | 44 | 33 | 57 | Yoesu | 56 | 73.3 |
26 | Sancheong | 44 | 138.7 | 58 | Gwangju | 56 | 74.5 |
27 | Jinju | 48 | 27.1 | 59 | Jangheung | 44 | 44.5 |
28 | Miryang | 44 | 10.7 | 60 | Haenam | 44 | 4.6 |
29 | Ulsan | 56 | 34.6 | 61 | Mokpo | 56 | 37.4 |
30 | Busan | 56 | 69.2 | 62 | Jeju | 56 | 19.97 |
31 | Ulleungdo | 56 | 220 | 63 | Seogwipo | 56 | 50.4 |
32 | Uljin | 45 | 49.4 | 64 | Seongsan | 44 | 70.9 |
No. | Scaling Exponent | Standard Deviation | No. | Scaling Exponent | Standard Deviation |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 0.5166 (0.4392, 0.5472) | 0.0321 | 33 | 0.3776 (0.3287, 0.4408) | 0.0290 |
2 | 0.4010 (0.3653, 0.4410) | 0.0195 | 34 | 0.3756 (0.3054, 0.4255) | 0.0277 |
3 | 0.3598 (0.3160, 0.4201) | 0.0290 | 35 | 0.3638 (0.3443, 0.3927) | 0.0124 |
4 | 0.3963 (0.3533, 0.4288) | 0.0191 | 36 | 0.4412 (0.3606, 0.4822) | 0.0317 |
5 | 0.3988 (0.3419, 0.4589) | 0.0327 | 37 | 0.3075 (0.2722, 0.3664) | 0.0237 |
6 | 0.3968 (0.3225, 0.4662) | 0.0381 | 38 | 0.3674 (0.3330, 0.4074) | 0.0180 |
7 | 0.3974 (0.3429, 0.4792) | 0.0369 | 39 | 0.3435 (0.3194, 0.3719) | 0.0133 |
8 | 0.4729 (0.4404, 0.4960) | 0.0145 | 40 | 0.3814 (0.3561, 0.4089) | 0.0135 |
9 | 0.4494 (0.3963, 0.4802) | 0.0209 | 41 | 0.3234 (0.2499, 0.4053) | 0.0414 |
10 | 0.3966 (0.3268, 0.4547) | 0.0324 | 42 | 0.3846 (0.3488, 0.4022) | 0.0138 |
11 | 0.3848 (0.3240, 0.4333) | 0.0279 | 43 | 0.3628 (0.3048, 0.4048) | 0.0271 |
12 | 0.3648 (0.3196, 0.4087) | 0.0227 | 44 | 0.3638 (0.2252, 0.4147) | 0.0569 |
13 | 0.3529 (0.3287, 0.3924) | 0.0141 | 45 | 0.2500 (0.1527, 0.3987) | 0.0803 |
14 | 0.4524 (0.3737, 0.4998) | 0.0375 | 46 | 0.3813 (0.2830, 0.4498) | 0.0420 |
15 | 0.4576 (0.3634, 0.4677) | 0.0393 | 47 | 0.3858 (0.2818, 0.4657) | 0.0486 |
16 | 0.4472 (0.3721, 0.5121) | 0.0351 | 48 | 0.3859 (0.2413, 0.4578) | 0.0598 |
17 | 0.3392 (0.3004, 0.3966) | 0.0247 | 49 | 0.3052 (0.2858, 0.3269) | 0.0105 |
18 | 0.3897 (0.3406, 0.4484) | 0.0281 | 50 | 0.3418 (0.2643, 0.3896) | 0.0360 |
19 | 0.3903 (0.3593, 0.4173) | 0.0150 | 51 | 0.3235 (0.2882, 0.3569) | 0.0172 |
20 | 0.3760 (0.3417, 0.3990) | 0.0147 | 52 | 0.3695 (0.3219, 0.4038) | 0.0209 |
21 | 0.3777 (0.3549, 0.3975) | 0.0108 | 53 | 0.3733 (0.3368, 0.3990) | 0.0158 |
22 | 0.3620 (0.3331, 0.3915) | 0.0149 | 54 | 0.4136 (0.3217, 0.4851) | 0.0415 |
23 | 0.3501 (0.3124, 0.3906) | 0.0205 | 55 | 0.2873 (0.245, 0.3846) | 0.0464 |
24 | 0.3723 (0.3327, 0.4148) | 0.0217 | 56 | 0.3749 (0.2969, 0.4518) | 0.0424 |
25 | 0.3469 (0.3171, 0.3787) | 0.0159 | 57 | 0.3915 (0.3475, 0.4234) | 0.0194 |
26 | 0.3907 (0.3753, 0.4087) | 0.0085 | 58 | 0.3708 (0.3257, 0.3978) | 0.0192 |
27 | 0.3680 (0.3391, 0.3992) | 0.0158 | 59 | 0.4395 (0.3393, 0.4892) | 0.0443 |
28 | 0.3645 (0.3303, 0.4036) | 0.0182 | 60 | 0.4587 (0.3434, 0.4980) | 0.0493 |
29 | 0.3629 (0.2490, 0.4624) | 0.0549 | 61 | 0.4518 (0.3377, 0.4954) | 0.0523 |
30 | 0.3443 (0.2929, 0.3903) | 0.0257 | 62 | 0.3907 (0.3332, 0.4231) | 0.0228 |
31 | 0.3972 (0.3092, 0.4518) | 0.0364 | 63 | 0.3755 (0.2724, 0.4636) | 0.0498 |
32 | 0.4694 (0.4274, 0.4934) | 0.0175 | 64 | 0.3479 (0.2877, 0.3900) | 0.0268 |
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Jung, Y.; Shin, J.-Y.; Ahn, H.; Heo, J.-H. The Spatial and Temporal Structure of Extreme Rainfall Trends in South Korea. Water 2017, 9, 809. https://doi.org/10.3390/w9100809
Jung Y, Shin J-Y, Ahn H, Heo J-H. The Spatial and Temporal Structure of Extreme Rainfall Trends in South Korea. Water. 2017; 9(10):809. https://doi.org/10.3390/w9100809
Chicago/Turabian StyleJung, Younghun, Ju-Young Shin, Hyunjun Ahn, and Jun-Haeng Heo. 2017. "The Spatial and Temporal Structure of Extreme Rainfall Trends in South Korea" Water 9, no. 10: 809. https://doi.org/10.3390/w9100809