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Review

Progress in the Study of Toxic Effects of Microplastics on Organisms in Freshwater Environments and Human Health

by
Qiao Cong
1,
Zixuan Ren
1,
Yang Zheng
1,
Lijun Wang
1 and
Hai Lu
2,*
1
Key Laboratory of Songliao Aquatic Environment, Ministry of Education, Jilin Jianzhu University, Changchun 130118, China
2
College of Visual Arts, Changchun Sci-Tech University, Changchun 130600, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Water 2025, 17(2), 229; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17020229
Submission received: 28 November 2024 / Revised: 13 January 2025 / Accepted: 14 January 2025 / Published: 16 January 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact of Microplastics on Aquatic Ecosystems)
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Abstract

:
The invention of plastics has brought great convenience to the daily life of humans. However, due to the lack of an efficient recycling mechanism, a large number of plastic products have entered the freshwater environment, resulting in the pollution of microplastics (MPs), which poses a serious threat to aquatic and terrestrial organisms. Therefore, this paper reviews the toxic effects of MPs on algae and aquatic animals in freshwater environments and human health. This study aims to summarize the influencing factors and mechanisms of the toxic effects of MPs on freshwater environments. This study is of great significance for the effective prevention and control of MPs pollution and to enhance the quality of freshwater environments.

1. Introduction

Currently, plastic products are widely used due to their low price, good plasticity, and resistance to water, moisture, and corrosion. There is a huge demand for plastics globally, especially in the packaging of food and daily necessities [1,2]. In addition, plastic products used as abrasive components, fillers, adhesives, tackifiers, stabilizers, film-formers, etc., in daily life are even more widely used in commodities such as beauty and skin cleansers [1]. Ninety per cent of the plastic microbeads added to the above products consist of polyethylene particles and range from 0.4 nm to 1.24 nm in size [2,3].
One of the disadvantages of plastics, and thus polymers made from fossil fuel, is the inevitable degradation at high temperatures or outdoor conditions [4]. Plastics undergo physical, chemical, and biological degradation to form smaller-sized particles. For example, ultraviolet radiation causes photo-oxidative degradation, resulting in the breakage of polymer chains and thus generating microplastics (MPs)—which are plastic particles with a diameter of fewer than 5 millimetres. Moreover, weathering is also a major cause of plastic degradation, leading to the production of MPs [5]. Due to the corrosion resistance of MPs, they cannot be effectively removed by existing processes in wastewater treatment plants. Hence, the long degradability of MPs in natural water environments exacerbates the accumulation of plastic pollution in the environment [6]. These smaller-sized plastic particles are easily ingested by aquatic animals and can cause toxic damage to their physiology. Research has shown that China alone produced 74.89 million tons of plastic products in 2023 [7]. Also, according to Borrelle et al. [8], it is estimated that by 2030, annual plastic emissions from 173 countries around the world could reach 53 million tons per year, which undoubtedly puts huge pressure on the global water environment. Figure 1 illustrates the main sources of MPs in the water environment [9].
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), at a symposium in 2008, defined MPs as plastic particles or fragments smaller than 5 mm but did not specify their shape [10]. As an emerging pollutant widely present in water bodies, MPs can disperse in nature for a long time and absorb other pollutants due to their unique physicochemical properties, posing a health threat to algae, aquatic animals, and even human beings. MPs now have become one of the hot environmental issues in the world. A large amount of relevant literature confirms that MP pollution is ubiquitous, and the ocean has become the hardest-hit area of MP aggregation. Currently, there are a significant number of articles on the impacts of MPs on the marine environment and relatively few on the impacts on freshwater systems. Freshwater resources are closely related to the daily activities of human beings, so it is of great practical significance to fully investigate the toxic effects of MPs on algae, aquatic animals, and human health in freshwater environments to effectively prevent and control MPs pollution. This study, therefore, provides baseline information to improve the quality of freshwater environments and even to enhance human health [11,12,13,14,15].

2. Toxic Effects of MPs on Algae and Aquatic Animals in Freshwater

2.1. Toxic Effects of MPs on Algae

The presence of algae is considered one of the best indicators of the quality of a freshwater environment [11]. Algae are primary producers at the bottom of the food chain in the aquatic ecosystem, and all their changes affect the structure and function of an aquatic ecosystem [12]. Therefore, the study of algae in freshwater environments is essential.
The effect of MPs on algal growth depends on the type of MPs and the species of algae [13]. Some experimental results have shown that, on one hand, MPs induced algal growth and increased photosynthetic activity [14]. However, on the other hand, the toxic effects of MPs on algae are likewise affirmed by several studies. These toxic effects may be explained by the fact that MPs precipitate chemicals in water that affect the growth of algae; some of these substances become nutrients that enhance their growth, while others are toxic substances that inhibit the growth of algae [15]. However, regardless of whether they initially promote or inhibit algal growth, they ultimately have a negative impact on algal growth and development. For example, a study reported that 25–100 mg/L nylon microplastics (PA-MPs) disrupted the energy metabolism of Microcystis aeruginosa and induced an oxidative stress response after 30 days of exposure [16]; polystyrene (PS-MPs) reduced the accumulation of essential fatty acids in common freshwater algae [17]; PS-MPs formed heteroaggregates with Chlamydomonas during the stationary growth phase [18]. In general, extracellular polymers (EPS), which are secreted by algae under unfavourable growth conditions, promote the adhesion of MPs to algae, and the two adhere to form heteroaggregates that are more easily submerged into the sediment [13]. In addition, the toxic effects of MPs on specific species depend on factors such as their exposure time, exposure concentration, substance composition, and particle size. Xiao et al. [19] found that PS-MPs with a particle size of 5 mm had a significant inhibitory effect on the growth of microalgae at concentrations lower than 10 mg/L. Meanwhile, the inhibitory effect of PS-MPs with a particle size of 0.1 mm on the growth of microalgae was enhanced with the increase in microplastic concentration. For example, the growth of Dunaliella tertiolecta was impeded after 72 h of exposure to high concentrations of PS-MPs (0.05–6 μm) [20]; 0.5 μm and 2 μm PS-MPs severely interfered with the esterase activity and neutral lipid content of Chaetoceros neogracile cells [21].
Some studies have confirmed that there is a significant relationship between the particle size of MPs and their toxic effects on algae. When the particle size of MPs is small, the growth inhibition effect on algae is obvious—thus, the smaller the particle size, the stronger the effect [22]. Comparatively, for MPs with a particle size of 1 μm, the inhibitory effect on algae was more obvious than that with a particle size of 1 mm [11]. Cao et al. [23] also confirmed that the toxic effect of PS-MPs with a particle size of 1 μm on Chlorella was greater than that of the same type of PS-MPs with a particle size of 5 μm. The main reason was that the aggregation of PS-MPs with Chlorella significantly inhibited the growth of the latter, affecting energy metabolism and gene transcription levels, and reduced light and pigment content, which in turn induced an oxidative stress response. Concentration is also an important factor affecting the toxic effect. The same PS-MPs with the same particle size of 1 μm had a significant inhibitory effect on Microcystis aeruginosa when the concentration was greater than 2 mg/L, while on the contrary, there was no significant change [24].
Photosynthetic pigment content has been widely used as a sensitive biomarker to indicate the stress of pollutants on photosynthesis [25,26,27]. In an experiment, 50–500 mg/L polypropylene (PP) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) reduced chlorophyll and photosynthetically active parameters of Microcystis aeruginosa after a 7-day exposure [28]. Similar to algae, aquatic plants produced excessive amounts of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and substances such as hydrogen peroxide and other free radicals when they were exposed to toxic pollutants. At the same time, the plants produce corresponding antioxidant enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), and catalase (CAT) to scavenge the lethal damage caused by ROS to cell membranes and organelles [29].

2.2. Toxic Effects of MPs on Aquatic Animals

Several studies have shown that MPs are abundantly present in freshwater systems and marine environments, and their toxicity is related to several factors, such as the concentration, type, exposure time, and particle size of the plastic particles. Even polylactic acid plastics (PLA), which are known to be biodegradable, may contribute to environmental pollution and have equally severe toxic effects on aquatic organisms [30]. Among them, smaller-sized MPs and nanoplastics can be ingested directly or indirectly by aquatic organisms, resulting in a wide range of physical, chemical, and biological effects [31], such as gastrointestinal tract obstruction, ulcerative lesions, delayed growth and developmental rates, oxidative stress, endocrine disruption, liver metabolism abnormality, immune response disruption, and genotoxicity [32,33]. All toxicity tests of MPs on aquatic animals were exposure tests [34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49]. Jabeen et al. [34] investigated six species of freshwater fish from China and found that all species ingested plastics, which were more likely to accumulate in the narrow stomach structure and coiled-structure intestinal tracts of the fish. From this point of view, it seems that the irregular shape and structure of the viscera increased the potential accumulation of plastics and the chances of damaging them. Magni et al. [35] found that in freshwater systems, the gills of bivalve molluscs were the first site of MPs ingestion, which then passed through the digestive organs such as the stomach and intestines and were transported to the hemolymph. It has been shown that spherical PE-MPs with an average diameter of 53–73 µm lead to alterations in the activities of two oxidative stress enzymes, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and glutathione S-transferase (GST), in juvenile Danio rerio after a short period of exposure. This caused physiological flocculation in Danio rerio, but embryonic chorionic villi could protect against MPs during the embryonic period [2].
MPs enter vital organs such as the gills, stomach, and intestines of the fish and then cause harm to their physiology [36]. Generally, planktivorous fish preferentially catch black MPs that look somewhat like food, while MPs of other colours (e.g., yellow, blue, or translucent) are usually caught together with fish feeding nearby. Interestingly, plastics caught alone were always spat out, and only the portion that was mixed with food in the fish’s mouth was swallowed [37]. The experimental results of Yin et al. [38] showed that compared with the blank control group, the experimental group with the addition of PS-MPs (1 × 106 microspheres per litre) and with a particle size of 15 μm had a certain degree of influence on Sebases schlegelii. Specifically, the microplastic-treated Sebases schlegelii showed lower sensitivity to the food added in the fish tank, significantly reduced swimming speed, and reduced range of activities, indicating that PS-MPs had a negative impact on their feeding activities and hunting behaviour. Furthermore, it was shown that the presence of PE-MPs reduced the predation performance and efficiency of Pomatoschistus microps juveniles [39]. Ye et al. [40] showed that exposure to PS-MPs caused the monosaccharide metabolism, tricarboxylic acid cycle, glycolysis, pentose phosphate pathway, and amino acid metabolism to be inhibited in the liver of Oryzias melastigmas. At the same time, fatty acids, fatty acid methyl, and ethyl esters were significantly increased, leading to liver metabolic disorders and diseases. Many studies have shown that fish ingesting MPs often die before maturity [41].
Danio rerio, a small tropical freshwater fish, is one of the commonly used test organisms in ecotoxicology due to its small size and ease of reproduction and rearing. In experiments on the toxic effects of MPs on Danio rerio, it was found that MPs mainly accumulated in the intestine of the Danio rerio [42]. Lei et al. [43] found that when Danio rerio were exposed to a solution of MPs at a concentration of less than 10 mg/L for 10 days, PA-MPs, PE-MPs, PP-MPs, or PVC-MPs with a particle size of about 70 μm all could cause rupture of the Danio rerio intestinal villi and intestinal epithelial cell division. In contrast, after 7 days of exposure to PS-MPs with a particle size of 5–70 nm, this species of Danio rerio showed liver inflammation and lipid accumulation, producing oxidative stress. Unlike the 5 μm diameter PS-MPs, which accumulated in the gills, liver, and intestine, the 20 μm diameter PS-MPs accumulated only in the gills and intestine [44]. Exposure to 5 μm and 50 μm diameter PS-MPs at both 100 μg/L and 1000 μg/L for 7 days induced changes in the metabolic profiles of Danio rerio larvae, with differential metabolites involved in a variety of metabolisms in vivo, which in turn produced inflammatory and oxidative stress responses and interfered with glycolipid and energy metabolism [45]. Exposure of adult male Danio rerio to 20 μg/L or 100 μg/L of 5 μm PS-MPs for 21 days resulted in significant reductions in body weight and condition factor, significant reductions in transcript levels of major genes associated with glycolipid metabolism in the liver, and reduced levels of major biochemical indicators in the liver [46]. PS-MPs with particle sizes of 0.10–0.12 μm at concentrations of μg/L 10 and 100 μg/L, on the other hand, induced the generation of ROS, which in turn affected the oxidative and immune defence mechanisms and inhibited neurotransmission in Danio rerio. In addition, PS-MPs exposure led to Danio rerio apoptosis, alteration of gill histogram laminar structure, capillary dilatation, and necrosis [47]. PS-MPs were combined with commonly prescribed amitriptyline hydrochloride (AMI)—which is a pharmaceutical agent employed in the treatment of depression, anxiety, and extensive musculoskeletal pain—(440 μg/L PS + 2.5 μg/L AMI) in a 21-day exposure experiment on Danio rerio. Compared with the blank control group, Danio rerio exposed to the PS-MPs + AMI group had severe intestinal damage, including cilia defects and partial loss, intestinal villi dehiscence, intestinal bacterial flora dysbiosis, and intestinal bacteria metabolism dysfunction, which in turn induced intestinal inflammation [48]. The toxic effects of common PS-MPs in freshwater environments on Danio rerio can be summarized in Figure 2 [43,44,45,46,47,48,49].

3. Combined Toxicity of MPs and Pollutants

MPs are more prone to adsorb other pollutants due to their large specific surface area and strong hydrophobicity [50]. MPs transport and deliver pollutants adsorbed on surfaces through aquatic and terrestrial environments, producing more complex combined effects on plants and animals in aquatic ecosystems [51]. In addition, once absorbed by aquatic organisms, these new contaminants are amplified through the food chain, with serious consequences that are complex to estimate [52]. Numerous research has shown that the adsorption capacity of aged MPs is usually higher than that of unaged ones, which is attributed to the fact that the surface of aged plastics becomes uneven and possesses a larger specific surface area. At the same time, the number of adsorption sites increases as the functional groups on the surface of MPs change with increasing ageing time [53].
It has been suggested that the uneven surface and high specific surface area of MPs also make them potential carriers of heavy metals [54]. The earliest report on this was the discovery of heavy metals adsorbed on the surface of plastic particles sampled from the coastline of Southwest England in 2010 [55]. Meanwhile, the experimental results of Dennis et al. [56] showed that MPs do adsorb heavy metals. Usually, the adsorption of metal ions is more significant at the charged sites on the surface of MPs. Unlike the adsorption of other substances, the combined toxicity of MPs and metal ions is usually divided into two phases, namely the antagonistic toxicity phase and the additive toxicity phase, respectively. In the antagonistic toxicity phase, heavy metals are adsorbed on the surface of the MPs, leading to a decrease in their utilization by organisms, so that the combined toxicity of the two kinds of material to organisms is lower than their respective individual toxicity. However, the additive toxicity phase refers to the release of metal ions from adsorbed MPs in the acidic digestive organ environment of the organisms, so that the two kinds of material act separately on the organisms with the trend in the toxic effects being superimposed [18]. In the study of heavy metal adsorption by MPs, it was not difficult to find that the accumulation concentration of heavy metals on the surface of MPs was consistent with the environmental concentration and sometimes even exceeded the latter. The results of the experiments have shown that the adsorption of Cu on aged PVC-MPs was significantly larger than that on unaged ones [56]. Not only that, but the change in pH also affected the adsorption of metal ions by MPs, and the adsorption of Cd, Co, Ni, and Pb by MPs increased as the pH kept increasing [57].
Antibiotics in the water environment are similarly adsorbed by MPs. Organic substances adsorbed on the surface of MPs may exhibit different co-toxicity. The toxicity of PS-MPs to algal cells was enhanced when they were combined with tetrabromobisphenol A [58], tetracycline [59], and chloramphenicol (CAP) [60], respectively. The toxicity of cephalexin to freshwater fish was enhanced in the presence of MPs [61]. Similarly, the toxic effect of paraquat on carp was enhanced with the presence of MPs [62]. In contrast, antagonism was observed when MPs were combined with ibuprofen and sulfamethoxazole, which was attributed to the adsorption of these antibiotics on the surface of MPs resulting in low bioavailability of these antibiotics [63,64]. Similarly, the toxic effects of PS-MPs in combination with triphenyl phosphate (TPhP) on Chaetoceros meülleri showed antagonistic effects [65]. Meanwhile, the binding of MPs to phenanthrene largely affected the synthesis of Clarias gariepinus proteins [66]. It has been found that MPs have different adsorption capacities for aliphatic and aromatic organic compounds, in descending order of PS, PVC, PE, and PA, which suggests that the mechanism of organic adsorption is related to the partitioning on the surface of MPs [67]. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are defined as a class of carcinogens by the World Health Organization. They are widely distributed and have been found in MPs worldwide [68]. Experimental data showed that Corbicula fluminea exposed to MPs were three times more abnormal than those not exposed to MPs. Furthermore, clams exposed to a combination of MPs and PCBs were more likely to develop moderate and severe tubular dilatation than those fed with MPs only [69].
In addition, environmental factors, such as temperature, pH, and salinity, are also important indicators of the adsorption of organic pollutants by MPs. Zhu et al. [70] found that the adsorption of rhodamine B (RhB) by PS and PP increased with increasing temperature and decreasing ionic strength. The adsorption of reactive red 120 (RR120) dye on polyamide nylon 6 (PN6) MPs reached a maximum when the pH value was 2, whereas an increase in temperature from 295 K to 313 K led to a decrease in the adsorption of RR120 by PN6 [71]. The optimum pH for the adsorption of pefloxacin (PEF) on chlorinated PS was 6. In addition, sodium chloride, sodium alginate, and Cu2+ inhibited the adsorption to varying degrees, with pH being the most potent inhibitory factor [72]. In total, 20 mg/L of xanthohumic acid inhibited the adsorption of tetracycline on the surface of the plastics by more than 90%, which suggests that electrostatic interactions are an important parameter influencing the adsorption process [73]. It has been shown that there is no chemical link between the types of substances adsorbed on the surface of MPs and the matrix of the MPs themselves. Therefore, these chemicals can be easily leached out [74]. It has been shown that during the degradation of polylactic acid microplastics (PLA-MPs), which are currently considered to be degradable plastics, the presence of their biofilm coatings allowed for an increase in the adsorption of oxytetracycline (OTC) on their surfaces. Even after the removal of the biofilm, the oxygen-containing functional groups on the surface of PLA-MPs still adsorbed OTC [75]. Specific cases of toxic effects of MPs on algae, aquatic animals, and aquatic plants are given in Table 1, Table 2 and Table 3, respectively. Among them, the toxicity experiment on aquatic plants in Table 3 adopted the exposure experiment [76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,87].

4. Impact of MPs on Human Health

Since there is no effective way to dispose of plastic waste on a large scale, piles and landfills are still the most commonly used methods of disposal at present. Thompson et al. [88] argued that the chemicals leached from plastic products in this process may eventually be transferred to the human body.
Ormsby et al. [89] suggested that MPs may influence bone loss. In their study, MPs were found to be present in edible fish, and through biomagnification, MPs can penetrate the human system. Since fish is one of the important sources of protein for humans, aquatic food safety is even more important for human health [90,91]. MPs particles are cytotoxic [92]; after being swallowed by the human body, MPs can harm the intestinal tract and will further spread to other organs or tissues [41]. In addition, MPs in the intestine can affect the activity and diversity of the intestinal microbiota and aggravate symptoms such as pro-inflammatory responses [93,94]. PS-MPs reduced the growth of Caco-2 cells and induced disease [95]. Schirinzi et al. [96] showed that 0.05–10 mg/L of MPs produced high levels of reactive oxygen species that increased the toxicity of the human brain and epithelial cells. Thubagere et al. [97] found that PS-MPs were cytotoxic to small intestinal adenoma cells, which implied an increased likelihood of organ inflammation, along with the risk of developing other diseases. Hwang et al. [98] found that MPs accelerated haemolysis and promoted the production of a pro-inflammatory molecule and that MPs may cause persistent inflammation, impaired organ function, and a higher risk of neoplasia when metastasized to distal tissues. Animal studies and in vitro experiments have shown that MPs can be taken up by certain types of cells such as phagocytes [99] and interact with intracellular organelles [100], with the risk of damaging the organism. Farhat et al. [101] suggested that MPs can also induce diseases in the autoimmune system. Other studies have found that autoimmune rheumatic diseases and systemic lupus erythematosus are likely to be associated with exposure to MPs [102,103]. These negative consequences depend largely on the level of exposure and sensitivity of the individual [104]. When substances such as pollutants and heavy metals are adsorbed on the surface of MPs, a series of complex physiological reactions can cause serious impacts on human health.
Figure 3 summarizes the toxic effects of MPs on the major organs of the human body once they have entered the body.

5. Conclusions

The toxic effects of MPs on organisms and human health in the freshwater environment are becoming more and more serious, and the following conclusions can be drawn from this study: (1) MPs can affect the photosynthesis of freshwater algae and produce oxidative stress, and many of them will even participate in the transcription of intracellular genetic information, which will have other impacts on the algal cells; (2) the accumulation of MPs in the freshwater organisms varies in different areas due to the differences in particle size and physicochemical properties. Most of them accumulate in internal organs, blocking the intestinal tract, affecting liver metabolism, affecting digestive function, generating stress reactions, reducing predatory performance, affecting growth and reproduction, and even causing death; (3) MPs have an uneven surface and have been shown to adsorb pollutants in aqueous environments, with more serious combined toxic effects on aquatic plants and aquatic animals; (4) MPs can be transferred to the human body through enrichment in aquatic plants and aquatic animals, thereby causing varying degrees of health damage.
Given the current serious MPs pollution situation, there is an urgent need to research the toxic effects of MPs on aquatic plants, aquatic animals, and even on human beings, including (1) research on the relationship between the properties of MPs (such as the type of plastics, particle size, etc.) and the toxic effects of MPs, (2) research on the specific mechanism of the toxic effects of the combination of MPs and pollutants in the water, and (3) research on the cost-efficient technology for removing MPs pollutants in the water. Of course, the most important strategy is to strengthen the determination of source pollution control of MPs, reduce the use of plastics, and adopt better waste plastics management and treatment methods, thereby reducing the quantity (and generation) of MPs. In addition, effective measures must be taken to improve the water quality of rivers and lakes, to reduce the combined toxic effects of MPs and other pollutants, and to build a sustainable freshwater ecosystem.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Q.C.; methodology, Z.R.; software, Q.C.; validation, Y.Z.; formal analysis, L.W.; investigation, Z.R.; resources, H.L.; data curation, Z.R.; writing—original draft preparation, Q.C.; writing—review and editing, H.L.; visualization, Y.Z.; supervision, Q.C.; project administration, Q.C.; funding acquisition, H.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the Environmental Protection Scientific Research Project (JiHuanKeZi No. 2024-02) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 42130705).

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Water 17 00229 g001
Figure 1. Main sources of MPs in the aquatic environment.
Figure 1. Main sources of MPs in the aquatic environment.
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Figure 2. Toxic effects of PS-MPs on Danio rerio in freshwater environment.
Figure 2. Toxic effects of PS-MPs on Danio rerio in freshwater environment.
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Figure 3. Toxic effects of MPs on major human organs.
Figure 3. Toxic effects of MPs on major human organs.
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Table 1. Toxic effects of MPs on algae in freshwater environments.
Table 1. Toxic effects of MPs on algae in freshwater environments.
Types of MPsEnvironmental ConditionsTargetsSpecific HazardsReference
PSParticle size of 50 μm, combined with Cd2+Microcystis aeruginosaDisrupted cell permeability, induced ROS production, damaged algal cell DNA, and inhibited growth.[76]
Combined with CAPMicrocystis aeruginosaExacerbating photosynthetic toxicity, damaging the cell membranes, inducing oxidative stress, and promoting the entry of CAP into cells[60]
Particle size of 5 μmEuglena gracilisVesicles increased, chloroplasts were deformed, induced POD and SOD activities significantly, and reduced the ‘genetic information processing’ and ‘metabolic’ pathways significantly.[19]
Particle size of 1 μm or 5 μmChlorella pyrenoidosaReduced photosynthetic pigment content, induced oxidative stress, disrupted cell membrane integrity, and altered transcript levels of genes related to photosynthesis and energy metabolism[23]
Particle size less than 70 μm, concentration of 60 mg/LChlorella sorokinianaAffected a range of lipid molecules in living organisms, reducing the tolerance of algal cells to natural stressors (e.g., temperature changes)[17]
PPParticle size of 400~1000 μmChlamydomas reinhardtiiDid not affect microalgae growth over a period of time of 60 days, but hetero-aggregates constituted of microalgae, microplastics and exopolysaccharides were formed.[77]
PP or PEParticle size of 0.5~1 μm, concentration of 500 mg/500 mLSpirulina sp.Reduced growth rate, damage to the surface of Spirulina sp. cells, losing the carboxyl part of the protein in Spirulina sp.[78]
PVCParticle size of 50~100 μm, concentration of 10~200 mg/LChlamydomonas reinhardtiiInhibited the growth and photosynthetic effect of algae, the toxicity increased with the increase in concentration and time of action, and the UV-aged PVC had greater oxidative damage to algae.[25]
PVC or PPPVC particle size of 111~216 μm or PP particle size of 64~236 μmChlorella pyrenoidosa and
Microcystis flos-aquae		Inhibited the photosynthetic system, affecting the rate of electron transfer, leading to the accumulation of electrons and exacerbating the elevated levels of ROS, promoting the lipid peroxidation of cell membranes; PVC had a greater negative impact on the photosynthetic activity of algae than PP.[28]
PAConcentration of 1000 mg/LMicrocystis aeruginosaObstructed photosynthetic electron transfer, reduced algal bile protein synthesis, damaged algal cell membrane, enhanced the release of extracellular polymers, and induced oxidative stress.[16]
Table 2. Toxic effects of MPs on freshwater aquatic animals.
Table 2. Toxic effects of MPs on freshwater aquatic animals.
Types of MPsEnvironmental ConditionsTargetsSpecific HazardsReference
PSParticle size of 5~70 μmDanio rerioInduced hepatic inflammation and lipid accumulation, generated oxidative stress, induced alterations in hepatic metabolic profiles, disrupted lipid and energy metabolism, PS accumulated in zebrafish.[44]
Particle size of 5 μm or 50 μm; concentration 100 μg/L or 1000 μg/LLarval Danio rerioInduced changes in the metabolic profile of Larval Danio rerio, differential metabolites involved in various metabolisms in vivo, produced inflammation and oxidative stress, and interfered with glycolipid and energy metabolism.[45]
Particle size of 5 μm; concentration of 20~100 μg/LDanio rerioReduced body weight and the status factor, reduced transcript levels of major biochemical markers in the liver and major genes related to glucose and lipid metabolism significantly.[46]
Particle size of 0.10~0.12 μm, concentration of 10 μg/L or 100 μg/LDanio rerioAltered the expression profile of antioxidant genes, affected oxidative and immune defence mechanisms, and inhibited neurotransmission in Danio rerio, leading to alterations in gill histogram laminar structure, capillary dilatation and necrosis[47]
Particle size of 10 μm; with green fluorescence packaged as 2.5% aqueous suspensionzebrafish embryosEasy to adhere to the surface of embryonic chorion, increased embryonic and larval mortality, and reduced embryonic and larval heart rate. The lethal toxicity of embryos increased with the concentration of MPs[84]
Particle size of 5 μm; PS concentration of 10 μg/L with Cd2+ concentration of 20 μg/L or PS concentration of 10 μg/L with Cd2+ concentration of 200 μg/LDanio rerioPs-MPs increased the accumulation of Cd2+ in the liver (46% and 184%), intestine (10% and 25%), and gills (9% and 46%) of zebrafish, and joint exposure caused oxidative damage and inflammation in zebrafish tissues.[85]
Particle size of 0.83~16.5 μmOncorhynchus mykissImpaired B cells growing in the developing anterior kidney, reduced the RAG1 gene expression, altered membrane shape of immunoglobulin heavy chain mu and tau[79]
PVC or PSPVC concentration of 4.2 mg/L combined with a PCBs concentration of 30 ng/g or PS concentration of 3.2 mg/L combined with a PCBs concentration of 30 ng/gCorbicula flumineaMore prone to moderate and severe tubular dilatation[69]
PA, PE, PP, or PVCParticle size of about 70 nm, the concentration of 0.001~10 mg/LDanio rerioIntestinal villi rupture, intestinal epithelial cell division[43]
PEConcentration of 100 μg/L combined with ZnONPs of concentration of 50 μg/LGambusia holbrookiZnO-NPs assisted in the hepatic accumulation of PE-MPs produced the Oxidative stress response, and promoted the induction of toxic effects.[33]
PE concentration of 100 μg/mL and 1000 μg/mL Danio rerioIncreased the intestinal microbial diversity index, intestinal innate immunity–complement C3 and C4 content first increased and then declined in a dose-dependent manner and increased the infection probability in the intestinal mucosa.[86]
PLAParticle size of 135.35 ± 37.12 μmDanio rerioCaused gastrointestinal damage in zebrafish, causing specific changes in gut microbiota diversity, and reducing gut pH value[87]
Table 3. Toxic effects of MPs on freshwater aquatic plants.
Table 3. Toxic effects of MPs on freshwater aquatic plants.
Types of MPsEnvironmental ConditionsTargetsSpecific HazardsReference
PSParticle size of 8.5~30.7 μmOryza sativa L.Reduced the rice stem biomass, reduced the rice branches length, inhibition effect increased with increasing concentration[80]
Fluorescent microplastics (FMP) and PSParticle size of 1 μm (1%)Phragmites australis (Cav.)Inhibition of height and aboveground biomass[81]
PEParticle size of 4~12 μmLemna minorPresentation mechanical blocking, affection root growth significantly, reducing the viability of root cells[82]
Particle size of 3 μmHydroponic MaizePE accumulated in the root system and reduced the root transpiration, Nitrogen content and growth.[83]
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Cong, Q.; Ren, Z.; Zheng, Y.; Wang, L.; Lu, H. Progress in the Study of Toxic Effects of Microplastics on Organisms in Freshwater Environments and Human Health. Water 2025, 17, 229. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17020229

AMA Style

Cong Q, Ren Z, Zheng Y, Wang L, Lu H. Progress in the Study of Toxic Effects of Microplastics on Organisms in Freshwater Environments and Human Health. Water. 2025; 17(2):229. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17020229

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Cong, Qiao, Zixuan Ren, Yang Zheng, Lijun Wang, and Hai Lu. 2025. "Progress in the Study of Toxic Effects of Microplastics on Organisms in Freshwater Environments and Human Health" Water 17, no. 2: 229. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17020229

APA Style

Cong, Q., Ren, Z., Zheng, Y., Wang, L., & Lu, H. (2025). Progress in the Study of Toxic Effects of Microplastics on Organisms in Freshwater Environments and Human Health. Water, 17(2), 229. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17020229

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