An Integrated Principal Component and Hierarchical Cluster Analysis Approach for Groundwater Quality Assessment in Jazan, Saudi Arabia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area Describtion
2.2. Sampling and Analysis
2.3. Data Processing and Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Ionic Dominance
3.2. Irrigation Water Quality Assessment
3.3. Ion Exchange Processes
3.3.1. Chloro-Alkaline Indices CAI-1 and CAI-II
3.3.2. Hydrochemical Ratios and Chemical Water Type
3.3.3. Mechanisms of Controlling Groundwater Chemistry
3.4. Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
3.4.1. Correlation Coefficients
3.4.2. Factor Analysis
3.5. Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA)
4. Conclusion and Recommendations
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Equation | Description | Source |
---|---|---|
Sodium percentage (Na%) | [44] | |
Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) | [45] | |
Potential salinity (PS) | [46] | |
Kelley’s ratio | [47] | |
Magnesium hazard | [44] | |
Permeability index | [46] | |
Chloroalkaline Index (CAI) | [48] |
Minimum | Maximum | Average | Std. Deviation | Variance | Skewness | Kurtosis | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Na% | 1.9 | 97.1 | 56.06 | 16.21 | 262.83 | −0.35 | 0.49 |
SAR | 0.01 | 41.7 | 8.25 | 6.50 | 42.29 | 2.15 | 7.04 |
PI% | 5.5 | 79.9 | 58.98 | 17.36 | 301.28 | −0.10 | −0.28 |
PS | 0.95 | 117.0 | 19.89 | 20.47 | 419.14 | 2.43 | 7.34 |
MH% | 4.0 | 56.9 | 24.36 | 9.61 | 92.26 | 1.05 | 1.17 |
KR | 0.01 | 19.19 | 1.49 | 1.75 | 3.06 | 6.46 | 59.06 |
CAI (I) | −42.97 | 104.23 | 14.24 | 19.69 | 387.79 | 2.25 | 7.43 |
CAI (II) | −1.68 | 101.37 | 14.70 | 18.22 | 332.06 | 2.73 | 9.06 |
Gibbs ratio1 | 0.07 | 0.98 | 0.69 | 0.20 | 0.04 | −0.59 | −0.42 |
Gibbs ratio2 | 0.02 | 0.98 | 0.62 | 0.16 | 0.03 | −0.73 | 1.30 |
r(Na + K)/rCl | 0.03 | 43.27 | 1.78 | 3.42 | 11.71 | 10.22 | 121.17 |
rCa/rMg | 0.74 | 47.69 | 3.99 | 4.00 | 16.01 | 8.03 | 81.42 |
rSO4/rCl | 0.06 | 19.50 | 1.00 | 1.69 | 2.85 | 7.82 | 80.57 |
Water Quality Indices | Water Type | Range | No. of Samples | % |
---|---|---|---|---|
EC (μS/cm) | <250 | Excellent | 1 | 0.56 |
250–750 | Good | 17 | 9.44 | |
750–2250 | Permissible | 77 | 42.78 | |
2250–5000 | Doubtful | 63 | 35.00 | |
>5000 | Unsuitable | 22 | 12.22 | |
The sodium percentage (Na%) | <20 | Excellent | 3 | 1.67 |
20–40 | Good | 24 | 13.33 | |
40–60 | Permissible | 78 | 43.33 | |
60–80 | Doubtful | 65 | 36.11 | |
>80 | Unsuitable | 10 | 5.56 | |
Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) | <10 | Excellent | 131 | 72.78 |
10–18 | Good | 34 | 18.89 | |
18–26 | Doubtful | 11 | 6.11 | |
>26 | Unsuitable | 4 | 2.22 | |
Permeability Index (PI) | >75 | Good | 38 | 21.11 |
75–25 | Moderate | 139 | 77.22 | |
<25 | Poor | 3 | 1.67 | |
Potential salinity (PS) | <3 | Excellent to good | 14 | 7.78 |
3–5 | Good to injurious | 16 | 8.89 | |
>5 | Injurious to unsatisfactory | 150 | 83.33 | |
Magnesium hazard (MH) | >50% | Unsuitable | 3 | 1.67 |
<50% | Suitable | 177 | 98.33 | |
Kelley’s ratio (KR) | >1 | Unsuitable | 99 | 55.00 |
<1 | Good | 81 | 45.00 |
Variables | pH | K+ | Na+ | Mg2+ | Ca2+ | SO42− | Cl− | HCO3− | NO3− | TDS | TH |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
pH | 1 | ||||||||||
K+ | −0.239 | 1 | |||||||||
Na+ | −0.107 | 0.456 | 1 | ||||||||
Mg2+ | −0.251 | 0.274 | 0.424 | 1 | |||||||
Ca2+ | −0.283 | 0.279 | 0.505 | 0.795 | 1 | ||||||
SO42− | −0.221 | 0.577 | 0.590 | 0.441 | 0.580 | 1 | |||||
Cl− | −0.167 | 0.286 | 0.809 | 0.786 | 0.805 | 0.412 | 1 | ||||
HCO3− | −0.276 | 0.241 | 0.078 | 0.128 | 0.042 | 0.079 | 0.004 | 1 | |||
NO3− | −0.043 | 0.489 | 0.166 | 0.193 | 0.248 | 0.479 | 0.089 | 0.131 | 1 | ||
TDS | −0.228 | 0.426 | 0.850 | 0.804 | 0.852 | 0.650 | 0.957 | 0.094 | 0.230 | 1 | |
TH | −0.283 | 0.292 | 0.494 | 0.937 | 0.957 | 0.545 | 0.841 | 0.085 | 0.235 | 0.876 | 1 |
F1 | F2 | F3 | |
---|---|---|---|
pH | 0.103 | 0.058 | 0.487 |
K+ | 0.272 | 0.441 | 0.021 |
Na+ | 0.574 | 0.000 | 0.071 |
Mg2+ | 0.719 | 0.054 | 0.034 |
Ca2+ | 0.801 | 0.040 | 0.006 |
SO42− | 0.515 | 0.155 | 0.061 |
Cl− | 0.802 | 0.114 | 0.002 |
HCO3− | 0.022 | 0.222 | 0.382 |
NO3− | 0.124 | 0.428 | 0.092 |
TDS | 0.950 | 0.018 | 0.004 |
TH | 0.850 | 0.051 | 0.018 |
Eigenvalue | 5.731 | 1.581 | 1.178 |
Variability (%) | 52.097 | 14.374 | 10.708 |
Cumulative% | 52.097 | 66.472 | 77.180 |
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El-Rawy, M.; Fathi, H.; Abdalla, F.; Alshehri, F.; Eldeeb, H. An Integrated Principal Component and Hierarchical Cluster Analysis Approach for Groundwater Quality Assessment in Jazan, Saudi Arabia. Water 2023, 15, 1466. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15081466
El-Rawy M, Fathi H, Abdalla F, Alshehri F, Eldeeb H. An Integrated Principal Component and Hierarchical Cluster Analysis Approach for Groundwater Quality Assessment in Jazan, Saudi Arabia. Water. 2023; 15(8):1466. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15081466
Chicago/Turabian StyleEl-Rawy, Mustafa, Heba Fathi, Fathy Abdalla, Fahad Alshehri, and Hazem Eldeeb. 2023. "An Integrated Principal Component and Hierarchical Cluster Analysis Approach for Groundwater Quality Assessment in Jazan, Saudi Arabia" Water 15, no. 8: 1466. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15081466
APA StyleEl-Rawy, M., Fathi, H., Abdalla, F., Alshehri, F., & Eldeeb, H. (2023). An Integrated Principal Component and Hierarchical Cluster Analysis Approach for Groundwater Quality Assessment in Jazan, Saudi Arabia. Water, 15(8), 1466. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15081466